Haiti  Lib.    AGRiC,  DEPT 


Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin 

Published  monthly  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  State  of  New  York 

Entered  as  second-class  matter  March  a,  1911,  at  th«  pott  office  at  Albany,  If.  Y., 
under  the  Act  of  June  6,  xooo 

ALBANY,  N.  Y.  JANUARY,  1916 


Bulletin  79 

(Part  I) 


The  Fruit  Industry  in  New  York  State 


Part  II  It  a  continuation  of  Part  I  and  treats — in  a  manner  similar  to 
applet— pears*  peaches,  cherries*  plums  and  prunes*  quinces*  grapes,  and 
small  fruits,  An  article  oo  fruits  in  the  home  completes  the  bulletin. 


Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Fanners'  Institutes  and  Compiled  under  the 
Supervision  of  the  Director 


STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 
// 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

CHARLES  S.  WILSON,  Commissione. 


Bulletin  79 
(Part  I) 


The  Fruit  Industry  in  New  York  State 


Issued  by  tne  Bureau  of  Farmers'  Institutes  and  Compiled  under  th« 
Supervision  of  the    Director 


V  V      k  S 

«^    ,  .        :  .  »    -• 

>•»-  >  « .-"!-,»    !  i 


\ 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction    035 

Tlio  Fruit   Districts  ol   New  V..rk.  U.  1'.  Hedrick 638 

Thi'  N  HI-MTV  Industry  in  New  York,  Samuel  Fraser 640 

Various    Methods    of    Refrigeration    and    Its    Advantage    to    the    Public, 

George   H.    McKay 662 

The  Apple  Grading  Law,  B.  D.  Van  Buren 669 

The  Apple-packing  Train,  F.  S.  Welsh 679 

Inspection    Work    of    the    Department    of    Agriculture    in    Relation    to 

Horticulture,  Dr.  George  G.  Atwood 684 

History  of  Fruit,  Exhibits  at  State  Fair,  H.  B.  Knapp 694 

Horticultural  Exhibits  and  What   They  Mean  to  the   Fruit  Interests  of 

the  State  of  New  York 706 

Exhibit  of  New   York  Fruit  at  the  Columbian  Exposition,  Edward 

van  Alystyne 706 

New    York   Fruit   at   the   Pan-American   Exposition    in    1901,    F.    E. 

Da\\  Icy    707 

New  York  Fruit  at  the  Land  Shows  and  San  Francisco  Exposition, 

Charles  G.  Porter 710 

The  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society,  John  Hall 717 

The  New  York  State  Fruit  Growers'  Association,  E.  C.  Gillett 727 

Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange,  W.  Y.  Velie 731 

The  Apple 741 

Introduction    of    the    Apple    into    America    and    New    York    State, 

Charles  S.  Wilson 743 

The  Apples  of  New  York,  Prof.  S.  A.  Beach 761 

Soil  Types  for  Varieties  of  Apples,  H.  J.  Wilder 769 

Tillage,  W.  H.  Chandler 776 

Cover  Crops,  R.  D.  Anthony 785 

Intercropping  the  Young  Orchard  —  From  an   Economic  Standpoint, 

M.  C.  Burritt 794 

Sod  Mulch  vs.  Tillage  for  Apple  Orchards,  W.  D.  Auchter 803 

Fertilizers  for  Fruits,  U.  P.  Hedrick 811 

Care  of  Young  Trees,  William  Hotaling 816 

Care  of  the  Old  Orchaid,  Roy  P.  McPherson 824 

Pruning,  Edward  van  Alystyne 830 

Insects  Particularly  Affecting  the  Apple,  Dr.  E.  P.  Felt 842 

Some   of    Our    Most    Common    Apple   Diseases,   H.   H.    Whetzel    and 
Lex  R.   Hesler 855 

[627] 

348340 


628  CONTEXTS 

The  Apple  —  Continued:  PAGE 

Dwarf  Apples,  U.  P.  Hedrick 871 

The  Profits  on  a  Barrel  of  Apples,  U.  P.  Hederick 889 

(Vntral  Packing  Houses  for  Xew  York  Fruit,  F.  S.  Welsh 895 

Celling   on    Commission    and    Buying    Direct    from    Producers,    J.    H. 

Killough 906 

Exporting  Apples,  C.  W.  Kimball 911 

Auction  Houses  as  Distributors  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  Victor  K. 

McElheny,  Jr 915 

Receipt^   and  Prices   of  Apples  in  New   York   City   and   Exports    of 

Apples  from  United  States  and  Canada,  H.  B.  Knapp 927 

The  Evaported  Fruit  Industry  in  New  York  State,  E.  W.  Catch  pole. .  937 

Grafting  and  Budding,  Dr.  George  G.  Atwood : , 9o7 

Physical  Injuries  to  Trees,  B.  D.  Van  Buren 903 

Statistics W5o 

Index  .                                                                                                                        .  907 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PA<;E 

Fig.  u;2.  Map  of  New  York  State  Showing  Fruit  Districts 641 

Fig.  Hi;!.  Block  of  One-Year  Bartlett  Pears 647 

Fig.  1(54.  Close  View  of  One  Type  of  Digger 652 

Fig.  Hi.").  Hear  View  of  Trencher (i.l.'i 

Fig.  ICC..  Plant  ing  Nursery  Stock 654 

Fig.  1<>7.  Rear  \'ie\v  of  Firmer .- 655 

Fig.  KiS.  Northern  Spy  drafts.  One  Year  Old 658 

Fig.  Hi!).  Exhibition  of  Cold  Storage  Apples 663 

Fig.  170.  Cold  Storage  House  at  Kendall,  Orleans  County 664 

Fig.  171.  Morton  Cold  Storage  Plant 666 

Fig.  17-2.  3,600  Basket's  of  Peaches  in  Storage 668 

Fig.  173.  Apple-packing  Train,  and  Men  Who  Gave  Advice  to  Apple 

Parkers 680 

Fig.  174.  The  Fruit  Exhibit  as  It  Appeared  from  1805-1910 695 

1'ig.  17").  The  Grange  Kxhibit  That  Won  First  Prize  in  1912 697 

Fig.  17(5.  One  of  the  Early  County  Exhibits 698 

Fig.  177.  The  First  Prize  Plate  of  Bartlett  Pears  in  1911 699 

Fig.  178.  The  First  Prize  Plate  of  Elberta  Peaches  in  1911 700 

Fig.  179.  An  Ontario  County  Exhibit,  1911 701 

Fig.  180.  The  Ulster  County  Exhibit  —  Winner  of  First  Prize  in  1915.  .  .  703 

Fig.  181.  The  Fruit  Exhibit,  1915 704 

Fig.  is-J.  Kxhibit  of  New  York  Apples  at  the  New  York  Land  Show,  1912.  711 
Fig.  183.  Exhibit  of  New  York  Apples  at  the  Chicago  Land  Show,  1913..  713 

Fig.  184.  New  York  Fruit  Exhibit  at  Panama  Exposition 714 

Fig.  185.  W.  C.  Barry,  President,  Western  New  York  Horticultural 

Society,  1915-16 718 

Fig.  186.  Pioneers  of  the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society 720 

Fig.  187.  Snapshot  of  an  Afternoon  Session 725 

Fig.  188.  Exterior  of  Office  of  Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange 731 

Fig.  189.  Office  of  Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange 734 

Fig.  190.  Storage  Room  of  Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange 735 

Fig.  191.  Loading  by  Carload  at  Milton,  N.  Y 737 

Fig.  192.  Loaded  Fruit?  Wagons 738 

Fig.  193.  Unloading  Feed 739 

Fig.  194.  Monument  to  Mclntosh  Red 745 

Fig.  195.  Marker  Erected  to  Original  Northern  Spy 747 

Fig.  196.  Tablet  to  Primate  Apple  Tree 751 

Fig.  197.  Indian  Apple  Tree,  Nearly  200  Years  Old 752 

Fig.  198.  Granite  Shaft  Commemorating  the  Baldwin  Apple 757 

Fig.  199.  Ancient  Rhode  Island  Greening  Tree,  About  200  Years  Old 759 

Fig.  200.  Block  of  Granite  Commemorating  the  Wealthy  Apple 760 

Fig.  2(il.  Map  Showing  Apple  Growing  Districts  of  New  York  State.  .  .  .  763 

Fig.  202.  Cove:  Crop  of  Red  Clover  in  Peach  Orchard 777 

[629] 


630  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  203.  Cover  Crop  of  Red  Clover,  with  Wild  Grass 779 

Fig.  204.  Buckwheat  as  a  Cover  Crop  in  a   Young   Pear  Orchard 780 

Fig.  205.  Young    Apple    Orchard    Belonging    to    College    of    Agriculture, 

Ithaca,  X.  Y.,  with  Dwarf  Essex  Rape  as  Cover  Crop 782 

Fig.  206.  Cover  Crop  of  Red  Clover  in  a  Thirty-three- Year-Old  Orchard..   783 

Fig.  207.  Canada  Peas  and  Buckwheat 787 

Fig.  208.  Mammoth  Clover  in  October 788 

Fig.  209.  Wheat  and  Cowhorn  Turnips  in  a  Young  Vineyard .' .  . .   789 

Fig.  210.  Rye  and  Wint'er  Vetch 790 

Fig.  211.  Cow  Peas  Killed  by  an  October  Frost 792 

Fig.  212.  Beans  in  a  Young  Orchard 797 

Fig.  213.  View  of  Orchard  Where  Test  was  Carried  on 804 

Fig.  214.  Tillage  vs.  Sod  Mulch 806 

Fig.  215.  Tompkins  County  Kings  Growing  Under  the  Mulch  System.  .  . .   808 

Fig.  216.  Square  Method  of  Planting 818 

Fig.  217.  Method  of  Planting  in  Equilateral  Triangles 818 

Fig.  218.  Cherries  Interplanted  with  Carrots 821 

Fig.  219.  Low-headed,  Well-shaped  Apple  Trees 822 

Fig.  220.  A  Well-kept  Orchard 825 

Fig.  221.  Spraying   the   Orchard 827 

Fig.  222.  Apple  Orchard  in  Blossom  —  the  Wrong  Time  to  Spray 828 

Fig.  223.  Baldwin  Trees  Fifteen  Yrears  Old,  and  the  Product  of  One  Tree.  830 
Fig.  224.  Greening  Tree  Twenty-two  Yrears  Old,  Headed  Four  Feet  from 

the    Ground 833 

Fig.  225.  Low -headed   Apple    Tree 835 

Fig.  226.  Greening  Tree  Improperly  Pruned 836 

Fig.  227.  High-headed  Apple  Tree,  Sixty  Yrears  Old 837 

Fig.  228.  Views  of  a  Properly  Made  Cut 839 

Fig.  229.  Improper  and  Proper  Cuttings  of  Limb 840 

Fig.  230.  Twig  Infected  with  San  Jose  Scale 843 

Fig.  231.  Common  Scale  Insects 844 

Fig.  232.  Aphis    Apples 845 

Fig.  233.  Side-wormy  Apples 847 

Fig.  234.  Side-wormy  Apples  in  Sections 349 

Fig.  235.  Side  Injury 850 

Fig.  236.  Apples  Injured  by  Green  Fruit  Worm 852 

Fig.  237.  Work  of  Round-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer 853 

Fig.  238.  Half -grown  Apples  Badly  Scabbed 857 

Fig.  239.  Scab  Spots  on  Apple  Leaves 859 

Fig.  240.  Black  Rot  Canker  on  Apple  Limb 861 

Fig.  241.  Apple  Showing  Stippin  or  Bitter  Pit  Spots 864 

Fig.  242.  European  Canker 866 

Fig.  243.  Illinois  Apple   Tree  Canker 868 

Fig.  244.  Sooty  Blotch 869 

Fig.  245.  Flyspecked  Type  of  Sooty  Blotch 870 

Fig.  246.  Van  Alstyne  Orchard  —  Manner  of  Pruning  at  Transplanting..   873 

Fig.  247.  Tree  on  Doucin  Stock  Before  and  After  Pruning 875 

Fig.  248.  Defects  of  Trees  on  Doucin  Stock 877 

Fig.  249.  Root  System  of  Apple  Trees .879 


ILLUSTRATIONS  631 

PAGE 

Fig.  250.  Wagner  Apple  Trees  on  Paradise  Stock  Blown  Over 881 

Fig.  251.  Wood  Orchard  Trees  on  French  Crab,  Doucin  and  Paradise 

Stocks 883 

Fig.  252.  ( Vntnil  Packing  House  with  Seven  Mechanical  Graders 897 

Fig.  253.  Usual  Floor  Plan  of  Packing  Houses 899 

Fig.  254.  Arrangement  of  (iraders  in  Packing  House 899 

Fig.  255.  Skylight  over  Graders  and  no  Posts  to  Interfere  with  Team 

Delivery 901 

Big,  256.  (  a  lit oi -nia  Citrus  Fruits  Sold  at  Auction 917 

Fig.  257.  Sale  of  (i  rapes  in  Auction  Companies'  Main  Salesroom 921 

Fig.  258.  Receipts  of  Apples  in  New  York  City,  1894-1904 928 

Fig.  259.  Receipts  of  Apples  in  New  York  City,  1904-1914 929 

Fig.  260.  Percentage  of  Receipts  of  Apples  in  New  York  City 930 

I  i-  261.  Price  of  Baldwin  by  Months 930 

Fig.  2<12.  Price  of  Rhode  Island  Greening  by  Months 931 

Fig.  263.  Price  of  Northern  Spy  by  Months 932 

Fig.  2f>4.  Price  of  Tompkins  King  by  Months 932 

Fig.  265.  Price  of  Ben  Davis  by  Months 933 

Fig.  2(56.  From  What  State  Do  You  Draw  Your  Apples? 933 

Fig.  2(17.  Exports  from  United  States 935 

Fig.  268.  Exports  from  Canada 935 

Fig.  2»i(.>.  Average  Annual  Imports  in  Foreign  Cities.  . 936 

Fig.  270.  Orchard  of  E.  W.  Catchpole  &  Sons,  Alternate  R.  I.  Greening 

and  Twenty  Ounce  in  Row 938 

Fig.  271.  Ben  Davis  Apples  in  Orchard  of  E.  W.  Catchpole  &  Sons 939 

Fig.  272.  Evaporating  Plants  in  State  of  Missouri  Operated  by  Men 

from  New  York  State 941 

Fig.  273.  Large  Kiln  Plant  at  Sanborn,  N.  Y 942 

Fig.  274.  Plant  of  J.  G.  Wright,  Wilson,  N  Y 943 

Fig.  275.  Four-kiln  Plant  and  Workroom 944 

Fig.  276.  First-floor  Plan  of  Six-kiln  Plant 945 

Fig.  277.  Second  Floor  of  Six-kiln  Evaporator,  Showing  Bleacher 947 

Fig.  278.  Triumph  Power  Parer 948 

Fig.  279.  Slicer  Used  in  Evaporating  Plant 949 

Fig.  280.  Rings  of  Fancy  Evaporated  Apples 950 

Fig.  .281.  Faced  End  of  Box  of  Fancy  Evaporated  Apples 952 

Fig.  282.  Splice  or  Tongue  Grafting 958 

Fig.  283.  Cleft  Grafting 960 

Fig.  284.  Bridge  Grafting 962 

Fig.  285.  Budding 964 


ORCHARD 

This  da i/  two  hundred  years  a</<>. 

Tin-  irlld  grapes  by  the  rirer's  side 
Arifl  tasteless  groundnuts  trailing  low, 

The  table  of  the  woods  supplied. 

Unknown  the  apple's  red  and  gold, 

The  blushing  tints  of  peach  and  pear; 

The  mirror  of  the  rirer  told 

A"o  tale  of  orchards  ripe  and  rare. 

Wild  as  the  fruits  he  scorned  to  till, 
These  vales,  the  idle  Indian  trod; 

Nor  knew   the  glad  creative  skill, 

The  joy  of  him  who  toils  with  God. 

O  painter  of  the  fruits  and  flowers! 

\\  C  thank  tliec  for  tin/  icise  design, 
Whereby  these  human  hands  of  ours 

In,  Xature's  garden  work  ivith  thine. 

(iire  fools  tltcj.r  gold  and  knaves  their  power; 

Let  fortune's  bubbles  rise  and  fall; 
\\Tnt  sows  a,  seed  or  trains  a.  flower, 

Or  plants  a  tree,  is  more  than  all. 

For  he  who  blesses  most  is  blest; 

And  God  and  man  shall  oicn  his  worth 
\\  lio  toils  to  leave  as  his  bequest 

An  added  beauty  to  the  earth. 

WHITTIEB 


INTRODUCTION 

Fourth  in  order  of  value  among  our  state  products  are  our 
fruits,  valued  at  $24,820,000,  according  to  the  last  federal  cen- 
sus, 11)10.  This  places  .New  York  first  in  the  list  of  states 
for  her  horticultural  products.  Eliminating  the  citrus  fruits 
of  California,  she  produces  more  fruit  than  any  two  other  states 
combined.  The  bulk  of  this  fruit  comes  from  a  limited  area  as 
compared  with  the  whole,  yet  there  is  not  a  county  where  some 
fruit  is  not  grown  and  where  the  amount  could  not  be  materially 
increased. 

If  for  no  other  reason  than  for  the  magnitude  of  the  industry, 
horticulture  should  have  a  prominent  place  in  the  series  of  publi- 
cations which  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  putting  out  through 
the  Bureau  of  Farmers'  Institutes.  Aside  from  its  magnitude, 
another  reason  why  horticulture  should  loom  large  in  the  eyes  of 
everyone  interested  in  the  land  and  its  products  is  that  it  has 
always  stood  for  the  highest  type  of  agriculture.  When  the 
sacred  writer  attempted  to  portray  what  would  be  most  tempting 
to  primitive  man,  he  pictured  a  tree  whose  fruit  "  was  good  for 
food,  and  that  it  was  pleasant  to  the  eyes,  and  a  tree  to  be  desired 
to  make  one  wise."  Again,  at  the  close  of  the  sacred  volume, 
when  St.  John  was  setting  forth  his  vision  of  the  celestial  country 
along  with  the  streets  of  gold  and  gates  of  pearl,  he  described 
"  the  tree  of  life  which  bare  twelve  manner  of  fruits,  and  yielded 
her  fruit  every  month:  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were  for  the 
healing  of  the  nations/' 

More  than  once  since  the  time  of  our  first  parents  has  the 
tree  loaded  with  fruit  been  pleasant  to  the  eye  and  proved  a 
temptation  not  to  be  resisted  by  men  from  other  walks  of  life 
than  agriculture,  many  times  with  much  more  pleasing  results  than 
are  recorded  in  the  first  case.  Wherever  and  whenever  civiliza- 
tion has  been  at  its  highest,  horticulture  has  occupied  a  prominent 
place,  illustrating  that  only  when  man  supplements  by  his  efforts 
the  works  of  his  Creator  do  the  products  of  the  tree  and  vine 
most  nearly  attain  perfection,  as  instanced  by  the  wild  fruits  as 

[635] 


636  THE  FRIIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

found  in  nature  and  those  literally  "  pleasant  to  the  eyes  and 
good  for  food,"  developed  by  the  skill  of  man. 

In  this  volume  we  have  set  forth  the  location  and  extent  of 
the  growth  of  the  several  fruits  of  the  state,  and,  in  consider- 
able detail,  matters  connected  with  their  production  and  handling, 
to  show  the  eifort  and  skill  which  has  been  and  must  be  put  forth ; 
in  order  that  not  only  our  own  people  might  appreciate  their 
goodly  heritage  and  opportunity,  and  have  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  making  the  most  of  it,  but  that  others  who  are  seeking 
desirable  places  to  locate,  together  with  a  knowledge  of  the  busi- 
ness, may  have  authentic,  first-hand  information,  and  learn  that 
in  many  places  in  the  Empire  State  they  will  find  land  where 
they  can  literally  grow  "  twelve  manner  of  fruits  "•  —  and  in  close 
proximity  to  great  cities,  even  though  they  be  not  altogether 
celestial  ones  —  and  that  we  gladly  give  them  of  our  best  in  the 
way  of  knowledge  of  the  craft. 

Prof.  II.  P.  Hedrick,  horticulturist  at  the  State  Experiment 
Station,  has  been  the  "man  of  our  counsel"  and  a  tower  of 
strength.  His  seven  articles  clearly  indicate  this,  but  in  addition 
the  compiler  would  accord  his  appreciation  of  the  assistance  so 
cheerfully  given  through  the  months  during  which  this  volume 
has  been  under  preparation.  Mr.  O.  M.  Taylor  of  the  same 
place  has  given  most  valuable  help  with  all  things  pertaining  to 
small  fruits.  New  York  fruit  growers  will  welcome  the  sight 
of  the  face  and  gladly  read  the  words  of  their  old  friend  and 
counselor,  Professor  S.  A.  Beach,  of  Iowa,  as  well  as  those  of  Pro- 
fessors Blake,  Henry,  and  Gulley  from  outside  the  state. 

As  in  other  bulletins  of  this  character,  we  have  not  hesitated 
to  call  for  expert  matter  from  the  scientist  at  our  College  and 
our  Experiment  Station,  and  again  they  have  freely  given  of  their 
best,  as  have  the  many  others  over  the  state  to  whom  we  have 
appealed  because  they  were  able  to  speak  with  authority  and 
had  a  message  for  the  multitude.  Of  all  of  these  the  readers 
will  testify  that  their  articles  are  living  witnesses  of  the  truth 
of  the  above.  To  all  suchj  in  the  name  of  my  readers  as  well 
as  in  my  own,  I  record  our  obligation  and  appreciation. 

The  compilation  has  required  many  hours  of  labor  and  a 
volume  of  correspondence,  but  it  has  been  a  pleasant  task  to 


ENTBODTJCTION  637 

Cither  together  and  set  in  order  this  "basket  of  summer  fruits." 
That  they  may  he  pleasant  to  the  eye  and  help  to  make  the 
readers  wise  is  the  wish  of  the  compiler. 

EDWARD  VAN  ALSTYNE, 
Director  of  Farmers   Institutes. 


THE  FRUIT  DISTRICTS  OF  NEW  YORK 


r.  P.  HKDIUCK 
Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva.  X.  Y. 

New  York  ranks  first  in  the  culture  of 
deciduous  fruits  among  the  states  of  the 
Union.  It  is  prominent  in  this  division 
of  agriculture  chiefly  because  its  climate 
and  soil  are  so  diverse  and  so  favorable  as 
to  make  possible  highly  specialized  pomo- 
logical  areas.  It  is  most  desirable  to  know 
the  boundaries  of  these  areas  in  order  that 
the  fruit-grower  may  be  able  to  specialize 
more  closely,  for  each  fruit  and  each 
variety  of  fruit  has  a  set  of  conditions  best 
suited  to  it.  We  wish,  then,  to  set  forth  briefly  in  this  article  the 
condition  of  soil  and  climate  to  be  found  in  the  several  physio- 
graphic divisions  of  New  York  in  which  fruit  growing  is  a  prom- 
inent feature  of  agriculture.  First,  let  us  glance  at  the  state  as 
a  whole. 

New  York  extends  east  and  west  412  miles,  and  north  and 
south  310  miles.  It  contains  within  its  borders  30,498,560  acres, 
about  three-fourths  of  which  is  farmed  land.  The  state  has  a 
wide  range  in  altitude,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  figures : 
One-twentieth  of  the  total  area,  chiefly  comprising  Long  Island, 
lies  below  an  altitude  of  100  feet;  sixteen-twentieths  between  an 
elevation  of  100  and  1,500  feet;  while  three-twentieths  rise  above 
1,500  feet,  the  maximum  altitude  being  above  5,000  feet  in  a  few 
places  in  the  Adirondacks.  • 

New  York  is  drained  by  five  water  systems.  The  drainage 
water  in  a  small  area  in  the  southeast  passes  off  through  the 
Delaware;  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk  drain  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state;  the  excess  waters  in  central  and  western  New  York 
pass  to  the  ocean  through  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence ; 
the  drainage  of  the  southwestern  part  is  through  the  Allegheny 
into  the  Mississippi  system;  while  the  Susquehanna  carries  the 

[638] 


THE  FIJI- IT  DISTRICTS  OF  NEW  YOKK  639 

waters  of  south-central  Xew  York  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  These 
several  water  systems  are  prominent  factors  in  the  fruit  districts 
of  the  state. 

At  first  thought  it  would  seem  that  pomological  districts  would 
be  outlined  somewhat  in  accordance  with  soils.  Yet  soils  cut 
but  small  figure  in  the  formation  of  fruit  regions  in  New  York, 
because,  excepting  a  small  area  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
state,  the  soils  have  been  formed  by  glacial  action  and  have  then 
been  carried  to  and  fro  until  nowhere  can  uniform  soils  be  found 
over  large  areas.  And  so,  though  most  important  in  selecting 
locations  for  a  fruit  farm,  soils  help  but  little  in  dividing  the 
state  into  fruit  districts. 

It  is  through  its  physical  features,  then,  that  the  state  is 
divided  into  fruit  districts.  There  are  nine  of  these,  each  quite 
distinct  in  natural  vegetation  and  in  its  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture. The  nine  regions  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  map 
and  are  briefly  described  in  the  paragraphs  that  follow. 

LONG   ISLAND 

This  district  is  composed  of  the  sandy  lowland  of  Long  Island. 
Its  formation  is  a  low  plain  covered  with  a  thick  deposit  of 
glacial  drift,  in  which  sand  predominates.  All  of  the  deciduous 
fruits  may  be  grown  in  this  district,  and  several,  as  the  apple, 
peach,  cherry,  grape,  and  strawberry,  can  be  grown  preeminently 
well.  The  varieties  of  the  fruits  cultivated  here,  however,  are 
not  distinctive.  The  limits  of  the  northern  and  the  southern 
sorts  seem  to  meet,  giving  a  great  number  of  varieties  for  the 
district  and  making  it  difficult  to  form  definite  lists  of  the  fruits. 
This  is  the  only  district  in  which  cranberries  are  largely  grown 
in  New  York. 

Fruit  growing  cannot  be  said  to  be  generally  developed  on 
Long  Island.  Market  gardening  is  the  mainstay  in  agriculture 
in  this  part  of  the  state,  and  is  probably  more  profitable.  There 
are,  however,  many  small  plantations,  the  products  from  which  are 
sold,  and  nearly  every  farm  home  has  more  or  less  fruit  about  it. 
Opportunities  for  profitable  fruit  growing  in  this  region  have 
seemingly  been  neglected,  and  the  industry  is  backward,  consider- 
ing what  could  be  done. 


640  THE  FKTIT  IXDUSTKY  IN  XEW   YOKK  STATE 

HUDSON  VALLEY 

This  region  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Hudson  from  Long  Island 
to  the  valley  of  Lake  George  as  far  north  as  Warren  and  Wash- 
ington counties.  The  varied  topography  and  the  several  geological 
formations  giving  different  soils  make  it  possible,  and  probably 
desirable,  to  subdivide  this  district  into  several  secondary  regions 
in  which  nearly  all  of  the  deciduous  fruits  and  many  of  the 
varieties  are  grown.  In  no  part  of  the  state  is  climate  and  soil, 
and  consequently  its  productions,  more  varied  than  in  the  Hudson 
Valley  district. 

Where  the  region  touches  the  seashore,  and  for  several  miles 
inland,  fruits  as  grown  on  Long  Island  will  thrive.  In  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  region  and  in  the  high  altitudes,  the  varieties  grown 
further  north  in  the  Champlain  Valley  are  at  home.  It  would 
be  hard  to  say  what  the  leading  fruit  is  in  this  district.  Without 
doubt  the  apple  is  most  largely  planted;  but  peaches,  plums,  and 
cherries  are  all  of  considerable  commercial  importance,  while  in 
one  part  or  another  of  the  valley  may  be  found  localities  which 
specialize  in  grapes,  currants,  or  strawberries.  In  no  other 
pomological  district  in  the  state  are  the  fruits  quite  so  diversified. 

Here  in  Xew  York  if  not  in  America,  fruit  growing  as  a 
business  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  during  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  Possibly  for  this  reason  the  industry  for  the 
last  quarter-century  has  been  a  little  slack  —  old  methods  and 
old  varieties  have  been  permitted  to  linger  too  long.  But  there 
now  seems  to  be  a  general  advance  in  agriculture  in  the  valley, 
and  fruit  growing  is  greatly  improving.  Certainly,  oppor- 
tunities for  this  industry  are  not  better  in  any  other  part  of 
the  state. 

ST.    LAWRENCE    AND    CHAMPLAIN    VALLEYS 

The  high  and  rolling  land  tributary  to  Lake  Champlain  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  also  such  parts  of  the  Adirondacks  as  are 
adapted  to  fruit  growing,  comprise  this  district.  Three  divisions 
could  well  be  made  of  this  district ;  the  two  valleys  could  be  kept 
distinct,  each  to  include  only  the  area  of  lower  land  adjacent  to 
the  water,  and  the  third  would  be  the  high  uplands  which  run 
back  into  the  Adirondacks.  Fruits  in  the  three  districts  do  not 
differ  greatly,  and  we  have  therefore  included  the  three  regions 


THE  FIM  IT  DISTRICTS  OF  ^ 


YOKK 


642  THE  FBUIT  I.NDLSTHY  i.\  XEW  YOKK  STATE 

in  ona  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  only  the  hardiest 
varieties  of  the  hardy  fruits  thrive  in  the  uplands,  and  that  only 
in  favored  locations  near  the  water  can  any  of  the  tender  sorts 
be  grown. 

The  apple  is  the  only  fruit  grown  largely  for  the  market  in 
this  region,  and  that  only  on  the  shores  of  Luke  Champlain  and 
the  St.  Lawrence,  !Xear  both  bodies  of  water,  apple  culture  is 
capable  of  extension  to  the  profit  of  those  who  are  willing  to 
play  the  part  of  pioneer.  This  is  for  the  most  part  a  great  dairy 
region,  and  no  doubt  the  continuous  care  of  the  animals  and  pro- 
duct required  in  this  business  accounts  for  the  general  neglect 
of  fruits,  even  for  the  home,  which  is  everywhere  apparent  in 
the  district. 

MOHAWK    VALLEY 

The  valley  of  the  Mohawk  extends  from  Oneida  Lake  to  the 
valley  of  the  Hudson.  This  district  is  one  of  indistinct  bound- 
aries and  possibly  should  be  divided  into  the  upper  Mohawk  and 
the  lower  Mohawk  districts,  in  which  case  the  lower  Mohawk 
could  include  the  Schoharie  Valley,  where  some  fruits  succeed 
remarkably  well.  A  fruit  list  for  the  lower  Mohawk  would 
include  some  sorts  recommended  for  the  Hudson  Valley.  Hardi- 
ness is  a  prime  requisite  for  the  upper  Mohawk ;  although,  since 
the  season  is  somewhat  longer,  some  varieties  can  be  grown  which 
will  not  thrive  in  the  district  to  the  north. 

Dairying  is  the  mainstay  of  agriculture  in  the  Mohawk  Valley, 
followed  by  general  agriculture,  with  fruit  growing  of  relatively 
small  importance.  Still,  there  are  some  commercial  orchards  of 
apples,  and  this  fruit,  with  pears,  cherries,  and  plums,  is  com- 
monly found  about  farm  and  village  homes.  There  are  numerous 
plantations  of  small  fruits  —  the  strawberry  in  particular - 
about  the  many  towns  and  cities  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  and  at 
Ilion  strawberry  growing  assumes  a  large  scale.  The  commercial 
growing  of  all  hardy  fruits  might  profitably  be  extended  along 
the  lower  Mohawk  —  particularly  in  the  Schoharie  Valley,  where 
there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  good  fruit  land. 

EASTERN    PLATEAU 

The  Eastern  Plateau  embraces  the  Catskills  and  the  high 
plateau  to  the  west,  reaching  to  the  basin  of  the  Central  Lakes. 


THE  Fur  IT   DISTRICTS  OF   XK\V   YORK  643 

The  western  boundary  of  this  region  cannot  be  drawn  with 
detiniteiiess,  but  the  eastern  boundary  is  well  drawn,  being  the 
highlands  overlooking  the  Hudson  Valley.  Both  the  wild  and 
the  cultivated  flora  in  this  region  are  variable  in  its  different 
parts,  and  in  accordance  with  these  differences,  and  to  agree  with 
the  topography  of  the  district,  several  subdivisions  could  be  made. 
Hut  it  is  an  agricultural  belt  rather  than  a  pomological  one, 
though  the  apple  succeeds  remarkably  well  in  some  valleys,  and 
the  other  hardy  fruits  can  at  least  be  grown  for  home  use.  In 
favored  locations  the  culture  of  hardy  tree  fruits  might  well  be 
extended  and  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  for  local  markets. 

CENTRAL  LAKES 

The  great  basin,  in  which  lie  the  Central  or  Finger  Lakes,  is  a 
region  of  very  indefinite  boundaries,  the  fruit  lands  of  which  lie 
generally  in  the  lower  and  more  level  lands  near  the  lakes. 
Unusually  favorable  conditions  prevail  in  this  and  in  the  district 
to  the  north  for  the  growth  of  the  apple  —  especially  favorable 
in  the  climate.  This  and  the  following  district  comprise  the 
Western  Xow  York  apple  belt,  far  famed  for  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  product. 

One  of  the  chief  assets  of  the  Western  New  York  apple  belt, 
as  has  been  indicated,  is  its  climate.  The  climate  as  a  whole 
is  one  of  comparatively  uniform  temperatures  and  with  well 
regulated  conditions  of  humidity,  both  brought  about  by  the  large, 
deep  bodies  of  water  in  or  adjoining  the  districts.  A  wide  range 
of  varieties  of  the  tree  fruits,  including  the  tender  peach,  is 
adapted  to  both  districts,  but  a  few  sorts  —  in  a  commercial  way 
at  least — have  gained  and  maintain  the  lead. 

While  the  apple  is  the  leading  fruit  in  this  district,  the  culture 
of  all  other  tree  fruits  assumes  large  proportions.  Probably  more 
cherries  and  plums  are  grown  in  this  district  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  state.  Here,  too,  is  found  the  second  most  important 
grape  region,  this  industry  being  localized  about  Keuka,  Can- 
andaigua  and  Seneca  lakes.  Between  Seneca  and  Keuka  lakes, 
with  Dundee  as  a  center,  is  the  seat  of  the  dried  black  raspberry 
industry,  over  a  thousand  tons  being  produced  annually.  Through- 
out the  whole  region  the  culture  of  one  fruit  or  another  is  carried 


644  THE  FRTIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW   YORK  STATE 

011  profitably,  the  fruit  plantations,  as  a  rule,  receiving  the  best 
of  care. 

ONTARIO  SHORE 

This  district  covers  the  whole  of  the  plain  along  the  shore  of 
Lake  Ontario  from  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Xiagara 
River,  extending  from  the  lake  on  the  north  several  miles  inland 
to  an  escarpment  of  limestone  about  (300  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  plain  is  broken  up  by  a  series  of  parallel  hills  —  the 
drumlins  of  the  geologists.  It  differs  from  the  preceding  district 
chiefly  in  the  matter  of  soils.  Several  distinct  types  of  soils 
found  in  the  Ontario  Shore  district  seem  to  be  well  suited  to  all 
tree  fruits.  The  soil  is  mostly  sandy  or  loamy,  and  is  easily 
drained  and  worked.  Soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  such  that 
trees  are  large,  productive,  and  long-lived,  and  the  fruit  is  of 
excellent  quality. 

While  the  apple  is  the  leading  fruit,  peaches,  pears,  plums, 
and  cherries  are  all  important  commercial  crops  —  more  peaches, 
at  least,  being  raised  here  than  in  any  other  district.  Greater 
or  less  quantities  of  grapes  and  all  of  the  small  fruits  are  grown. 
The  great  nursery  industry  is  centered  here,  with  Rochester  as 
headquarters,  though  much  of  the  stock, is  grown  in  the  Central 
Lakes  region  about  Geneva  and  Dansville.  Generally  speaking, 
fruit  growing  is  more  highly  specialized  and  better  practiced  in 
this  than  in  any  other  of  the  pomological  regions  of  Xew  York. 

ERIE    SHORE 

This  name  is  given  the  plain  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie  from 
the  Niagara  River  to  the  western  boundary  of  the  state  —  a  very 
narrow  strip  of  land  bounded  on  the  south  by  a  high  escarpment 
and  gradually  descending  beneath  the  lake  level  on  the  north. 
This  district  is  largely  given  up  to  grape  growing,  the  culture 
of  this  fruit  being  by  far  the  most  important  pursuit  of  the 
region.  The  district  is  perhaps  better  known  as  the  "  Chautauqua 
Grape  Belt,"  far  famed  for  its  Concord  grapes  produced  for  the 
general  market  and  for  the  manufacture  of  grape  juice.  There 
are  in  this  region  about  35,000  acres  of  grapes  —  the  largest  area 
of  native  grapes  under  cultivation  anywhere  now  growing. 


TIIK   FKTIT  DISTRICTS  OK.  NEW  YORK  645 

Besides  the  grapes  along  the  Erie  Shore,  all  of  the  tree  and 
small  fruits  arc  cultivated  more  or  lees  for  the  markets.  No 
doubt  an  increase  in  the  culture  of  other  fruits  than  the  grape 
would  greatly  benefit  the  fruit  growers  of  the  district,  since 
diversification  would  better  employ  labor  and  give  more  profitable 
•yields  on  soils  now  planted  to  grapes  but  better  adapted  to  some 
other  fruit. 

WKSTKK'X     PLATEAU 

This  district  lies  on  the  high  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  Ontario 
and  Kiie  Shores  and  west  of  the  Central  Lakes.  This,  like  the 
Kastern  Plateau,  is  a  region  of  indefinite  boundaries  and  varied 
topography,  and  of  much  less  importance  in  the  fruit  industry 
than  the  neighboring  districts.  Only  hardy  fruits  can  be  grown 
in  this  district,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  culture  of  these  should 
be  attempted,  except  in  very  favorable  spots,  for  more  than  local 
consumption. 


THE  NURSERY  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK 
SAMUEL   FRASER,   GEXESEO,   X.   Y. 

MAGNITUDE    OF    THE    INDUSTRY 

According  to  the  thirteenth  census  of 
the  United  States,  the  acreage  in  nurseries 
in  1909  was  87,618  acres,  while  in  1899 
it  was  but  59,492  acres.  In  other  words, 
a  gain  of  35.5  per  cent  in  acreage  was 
made  in  that  decade;  while  in  value  of 
products  the  figures  were  $10,123,873  in 
1899  and  $21,450,822  in  1909,  a  gain  of 
107.9L  per  cent 

Taking  the  different  divisions  of  the 
United  States  we  find  that  in  value  of 

products  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  rank  first;  the  West  North- 
Central  division,  second;  the  Pacific  division,  third;  and  the  East 
North-Central,  fourth.  The  state  of  New  York  reports  the  value 
of  such  products  as  $2,703,000,  which  is  greater  than  in  any  other 
state,  California  being  second  with  a  value  of  $2,135,000,  and 
Texas  third  with  $1,236,000.  No  other  state  produced  $1,000,000 
worth.  The  acreage  given  for  New  York  in  1899  was  8,248,  while 
in  1909  it  was  8,680 ;  in  other  words,  the  acreage  made  a  slight  gain 
of  5.4  per  cent  in  the  ten  years,  but  in  value  we  see  a  remarkable 
gain  of  from  $1,642,107  in  1899  to  $2,750,957  in  1909,  or  67.5 
per  cent.  This  increase  in  value,  however,  was  not  so  high  as  that 
of  the  rest  of  the  country.  In  1911,  the  figures  from  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  show  9,255  acres,  and  in  1912,  the  number  of  acres  was 
increased  to  9,918. 

The  nursery  business  has  long  been  established  in  New  York, 
and  the  firms  engaged  rank  high  in  the  industry.  Of  the  five 
hundred  members  of  the  National  American  Nurserymen's  Asso- 
ciation, about  25  per  cent  are  from  the  state  of  New  York,  which 
is  significant  when  we  remember  that  -New  York  has  but  one-ninth 
the  total  acreage  of  the  nursery  industry  and  one-eighth  of  the 
total  value. 

[646] 


Tin-:   XTKSKUY   IMHSTKY    i.\    Xi-:\v   YORK 


647 


648 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


The  thirteenth  census  reports  nursery  products  as  being  grown 
on  608  farms  in  the  state  of  Xew  York.  Of  this  total,  306  did 
not  grow  sufficient  for  their  stock  to  reach  $250  in  value;  in  fact, 
the  total  value  of  these  306  places  was  only  $47,514,  an  average 
of  $155  per  farm.  The  remaining  302  establishments  reporting 
the  value  of  products  as  over  $250  each,  had  ar  average  of  $8,952 
per  farm.  The  census  for  1899  gave  the  total  acreage  of  nursery 
products  and  the  value  thereof  as  follows : 


TABLE  I 

Amount  of 

New  York  Counties  Ac-res  Sales 

Albany     5 . 5  $7,  001 

Allegany    7.5  5, 050 

Broome     6.75  4,  750 

Cattaraugus    141 

Cayuga    53 . 5  5.  tiS',> 

Chautauqua    406.5  90, 532 

Chemung 15.0  1,994 

Clinton     , 1.5  225 

Columbia . 8.0  1,215 

Cortland    105 

Delaware     ...  31 

Dutchess 19.5  2, 985 

Erie    61.5  15,350 

Fulton     1.5  302 

Genesee    220. 0  42, 242 

Greene     2.5  2, 050 

Jefferson    3.5  76 

Kings     2.75  7,853 

Livingston 688 . 0  103,  046 

Madison     18.0  1,080 

Monroe    3,  118.5  621, 230 

Montgomery   .75  655 

Nassau     199.0  44,103 

New  York 12 . 25  3,  400 

Niagara     133 . 0  19, 335 

Oneida  2.G  2, 044 

Onondaga    329 . 75  33. 423 

Ontario    1. 033.75  230,  174 

Orange 102.5  12. 880 

Orleans    68.75  11,115 

Oswego 5.5  2, 363 

Otsego    ...  30 

Queens 203.0  51. 311 

Kensselaer    31.0  12, 040 

Richmond    1.0  150 

Rockland  1.5  801 


TIIK   XrusKRY   INWSTIIY   IN   Xi-:\v   YOKK  649 


Amount  of 


New  York  Counties 

Acres 

Sales 

St  .    Lawrence    

S.O 

.$000 

Saratoga    , 

5.25 

1,300 

Schoharie    

5.0 

2,500 

Sclmvlor    

56.5 

15,  846 

Seneca    

147.5 

16,  020 

Steuben   

.3.0 

365 

Suffolk    

240.75 

22,  052 

Tompkins    

8.5 

2,185 

Ulster    

3.5 

l,4eK) 

Washington    

.5 

1,  256 

\Vavnc-    

816.5 

173,661 

Westchester    

137.5 

62,  521 

Wyoming  

.25 

50 

Yates   

41.75 

4,320 

Total     8,238.25     $1,642,107 


At  that  time  Monroe  County  with  3,118.5  acres  was  the  leading 
county  in  the  state,  followed  by  Ontario  with  1,033.75  acres, 
\V;iyne  with  cSl  *;..")  acres,  Livingston  with  688  acres,  Chautauqua 
with  40G.5  acres,  Onondaga  with  329.75  acres. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  difference  in  acreage  from 
1909  is  but  5.4  per  cent  greater  than  it  was  in  1899;  in  other 
words,  New  York  is  pursuing  a  consistent  policy ,~~  On  the  Pacific 
Coast  the  three  states  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  made 
a  gain  of  103.6  per  cent,  and  every  division  showed  a  much 
<ii:<>at<>r  gain  than  that  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  —  New  York, 
Xew  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  In  New  York,  while  the  acreage 
did  not  change  very  much,  the  number  of  establishments  increased 
from  485  in  1899,  to  608  in  1909.  The  actual  increase  in  value 
per  acre  was  from  $199.33  in  1899,  to  $316.93  in  1909.  Taking 
the  average  of  all  the  establishments,  the  value  per  establishment 
increased  from  $3,386  to  $4,525.  We  cannot  find  the  differences 
between  the  counties  for  the  same  decade,  because  they  were  not 
taken  in  the  census  of  1910. 

After  1910,  to  1914,  there  was  a  marked  tendency  to  increase 
the  planting,  especially  of  apple  trees,  and  the  reports  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Albany  show  the  following  totals: 


650            THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  rx    XKW   YORK  STATE 

TABLE  II 

Report  of  Report  of  Report  of  Report  of 

1911  1912                       1913  1914 

No.  nursery  certificates.                   500  586                  663  647 

No.  vineyard  certificates.                      42  28                      37  33 

Acres  in  nurseries 9,255  9,918               9.735  8,356 

Acres    in   vineyards 2. 233  1, 297                   736  1,  181 

Apple  trees    14.350,000  19,246.000  21,038.375  18,640,177 

Pear  trees    6,  700.  000  7: 185.  000  7.  097.  166  6,  897.  547 

Dwarf  pear  trees 1,100.000  970.000           981,544  1.086,262 

Plum  trees 8,  600.  000  8,  263,  000  5.  256.  204  5,  133,  381 

Cherry   trees    10,700,000  9.945,000  10.068,617  9,496.862 

Peach  trees    9,  000,  000  9,  892,  000  9.  624.  903  7.  567,  620 

Quince   trees    1,500,000  1,782,000  1.524.932  1.666,090 

Apricot    trees    *1,  167,  000  16,  000           129.  050  143.  816 

Ornamental  trees                      5,  100.  000  8,  567,  000  39.  528.  210  28.  107.  360 

Ornamental  shrubs 13,000,000  11.675,000  10.289,630  9,936,219 

Currant  plants 6,  900.  000  6,  828,  000  7.  31 1.  043  6,  494,  948 

Grapevines    (plants) 15,580,000  24,465,000  18.047.412  19,119,805 

Herbaceous  plants    122,  000  907.  000           874.  500  1.  066,  600 

Gooseberry   plants    2,116,000  1,835,000  2.050.371  1,986,508 


*Probably  an  error. 

Dr.  George  G.  Atwood  contributes  the  following: 
"In  1912  there  were  about  20,000,000  apple  trees  raised  in 
the  state  of  Xew  York.  I  believe  that  most  of  the  apple  trees  are 
raised  in  the  nurseries  of  Ontario,  Moirroe,  Wayne,  and  Livingston. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  majority  of  the  pears,  plums,  cherries, 
peaches,  and  quinces  are  produced  in  the  counties  named.  Orna- 
mental trees  are  grown  mostly  at  Geneva,  Xewark,  Rochester, 
Poughkeepsie,  Yonkers,  Flushing,  and  Westbury,  and  those  grown 
by  the  State  Conservation  Commission  number  into  the  millions. 
Currants  are  grown  most  largely  in  Chautauqua  County,  but  many 
are  grown  in  Ulster,  Ontario,  Wayne,  and  Xiagara  counties. 
Comparatively  few  grapevines  are  grown  outside  of  Chautauqua 
county.  The  bulk  of  the  gooseberries  are  also  raised  in  this  county. 
Herbaceous  plants  are  grown  in  the  nurseries  handling  orna- 
mental trees." 

SOILS 

The  principal  soil  types  in  use  in  western  Xew  York  are  those 
of  the  Ontario  and  Dunkirk  series.  All  types  ranging  from  fine 
sandy  loam  to  loam  and  clay  loam  are  used,  the  tendency 
being  to  place  the  pears  and  plums  on  the  heavier  soil  types  and 


TlIK     XlKSKUY     I.MHSTRY     IX     Xl-;\V     YoK'K  651 

the  cherries,  peaches,  and  apples  ou  the  lighter.  Observant 
nurserymen  frequently  find  it  advisable  to  grow  certain  varieties 
of  apples,  such  as  Twenty  Ounce,  Williams  Red,  and  Graveiistein, 
on  the  lighter  loams,  while  they  would  not  hesitate  to  plant  such 
varieties  as  U.  1.  Greening,  Baldwin,  and  Mclntosh  on  heavy 
loams.  For  the  production  of  the  best  specimens,  the  different 
varieties  have  their  own  requirements, 

Mazzard  cherry  seedlings  are  planted  on  the  gravelly  loams, 
which  must  be  well  drained  in  order  to  give  a  good  stand.  The 
Mahaleb  cherry  seedlings  can  be  grown  on  heavier  land.  A  very 
slight  excess  of  water  will  make  the  growing  of  the  Mazzard  cherry 
a  failure.  There  is  perhaps  no  more  fickle  plant  in  the  nursery 
than  this,  which  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  reasons  why  it  is  so 
little  grown. 

In  New  Jersey,  where  the  nursery  business  has  forged  ahead 
in  the  last  fifteen  years,  the  Cbllington  sandy  loam  derived  from 
the  green  sandy  marl  common  in  Maryland  and  New  Jersey  has 
proven  particularly  well  adapted  to  nursery  production,  while 
the  principal  soil  used  in  the  Huntsville  area  in  Alabama  is  the 
red  limestone  called  Decatur  clay. 

DISEASES    ON    CERTAIN    SOILS 

Formerly  the  presence  of  a  slight  amount  of  hairy  root  on  an 
apple  caused  little  comment,  but  today  such  trees  are  discarded. 
Since  this  is  much  more  prevalent  on  heavy  loam  soils,  there  is 
a  tendency  to  grow  the  apple  on  the  lighter  soils  to  avoid  it. 
The  Clyde  loam  is  an  excellent  soil  for  the  production  of  most 
types  of  nursery  stock  when  well  drained.  It  is  land  which  pre- 
viously grew  elm  trees;  if  allowed  to  stand,  these  will  provide 
sources  of  infection  for  wooly  aphis  —  one  of  the  most  serious 
pests  today  in  the  apple  nurseries  of  western  New  York.  Con- 
sequently, trees  of  this  type  must  be  removed  some  time  previous 
to  the  usage  of  the  soil  for  nursery  production,  in  order  that  the 
whole  may  be  cleared  of  this  insect. 

Clyde  loam,  as  well  as  many  fields  of  Dunkirk  loam  and  clay 
loam,  need  thorough  underdrainage  before  they  can  be  profitably 
used  for  the  production  of  nursery  stock.  In  some  cases  the 
drains  are  placed  thirty  feet  apart ;  in  others,  forty  feet ;  and  at  a 


652 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YOKK  STATE 


depth  ranging  from  thirty  inches  to  three  feet.  The  underdrain- 
jige  of  the  land  frequently  costs  from  forty  to  fifty  dollars  per 
acre,  or  even  more. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    LAND 

As  already  mentioned,  the  fields  should  be  thoroughly  under- 
drained  if  this  be  needed,  and  it  is  advisable  that  the  land  should 
have  been  used  for  the  production  of  a  good  hay  crop.  If  man- 


FIG.  164. —  CLOSE  VIEW  OF  ONE  TYPE  OF  DIGGER  —  A  STOUT,  U-SHAPED  BLADE 
ON  A  STRONG  FRAME,  EQUIPPED  WITH  LEVERS  FOR  REGULATING  THE  DEPTH 

ured  for  the  hay  crop,  and  the  land  thoroughly  supplied  with 
organic  matter,  the  field  should  be  in  good  condition  for  the 
growing  of  trees.  The  plowing  is  usually  done  in  the  fall ;  there 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  subsoiling  is  profitable 
or  not.  In  some  instances  the  Spaulding  deep-tilling  tool  is  used, 
and  the  land  is  plowed  fifteen  inches  deep;  in  others  the  first 
plowing  eight  inches  deep  is  given,  and  the  subsoiler  is  run  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  with  another  team.  In  still  other  cases  the 
land  is  plowed  at  a  depth  of  nine  to  ten  inches  and  appears  to  give 
satisfactory  results.  Undoubtedly,  the  local  conditions  and  the 
experience  of  the  person  with  the  particular  land  in  question 
are  important  factors. 


TlIK     XlRSKKY     I.MHSTKY     IN     XttW     YoKK 


653 


Where  an  adequate  supply  <>t  organic  matter  is  obtained  in 
this  way,  no  fertilizers  arc  used.  There  are  two  important 
factors  to  remember  in  the  soil  management:  first,  there  must  be 
a  large  supply  of  organic  matter  that  can  be  liberated  by  con- 
stant tillage  for  the  benefit  of  the  plants ;  second,  the  soil  must  be 
sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture  so  that  the  plants  are  never 
stunted  at  any  time,  and  it  must  be  sufficiently  well  drained  so 
that  tillage  can  be  maintained  at  all  times.  Land  sufficiently 
well  drained  for  a  farm  crop  may  not  be  well  enough  drained 
for  a  nursery  crop. 

PLANTING 

Iii  the  spring  the  land  is  well 
iitted  before  the  seedlings  are 
•planted,  which  means  that  it 
should  be  like  a  garden.  It  is 
then  rolled.  A  trench  is  opened 
with  a  trencher  which  carries  a 
marker  attached,  the  rows 
usually  being  made  about  forty 
inches  apart  and  according  to 
whether  the  seedlings  or  grafts 
arc1  to  be  planted.  The  method 
of  planting  varies.  With  some 
trenchers  the  trench  remains 
sufficiently  open  so  that  the 
stock  can  be  placed  in  by  hand  and  a  little  soil  pulled  round  it, 
but  with  others  the  soil  falls  back  to  such  an  extent  that  a  spade 
is  necessary  to  reopen  the  trench  to  permit  of  the  seedling  being 
pushed  down  to  the  proper  degree.  There  is  no  use  following  a 
cheeseparing  policy  with  nursery  stock.  Anything  that  does  the 
work  in  a  better  manner  is  worth  pursuing,  because  the  total 
expenditure  incurred  is  considerable  and  the  neglect  of  one  factor 
is  serious. 

Our  custom  is  to  plant  at  the  back  of  the  spade  in  addition  to 
opening  the  trench,  in  order  to  get  the  roots  down  where  we  want 
them.  Two  men  work  together;  one  manipulates  the  spade  and 
the  other  sticks  the  stock ;  the  man  who  uses  the  spade  kicks  a 


FIG.  165. —  REAR  VIEW  OF  TRENCHER, 
OPENING  FURROW  FOR  THE  STOCK 


654  THE   FRIIT  LMU'STJJY  ix  XEW   YORK  STATE 

little  soil  toward  the  seedling  after  it  has  been  placed,  and  tramps 
it.  The  stock  is  firmed  with  a  firmer  drawn  by  two  horses.  This 
compacts  the  soil  tightly  round  the  roots. 

THE   STOCK 

Seedlings  of  certain  fruits,  such  as  apples,  are  grown  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  this  country.  At  the  present  time  apples  are 
grown  to  a  large  degree  in  Kansas  and  Missouri,  and  to  a  lesser 
degree  in  the  East.  Many  eastern  nurseries  import  their  seedlings 
from  France,  and  some  from  Holland.  The  French  is  looked 
upon  with  more  favor  because  it  seems  to  suit  our  conditions  bet- 
ter. The  stock  is  graded  according  to  its  caliper,  a  grade  of 


FIG.  166. —  PLAXTIXG  NURSERY  STOCK 

10-12  mm.  sometimes  being  made  in  the  case  of  apple  and  pear  — 
more  often  7-12  mm.     The  second  grade  is  usually  5-10  mm.  or 
6-9  mm. ;  third  gradej  5-7  mm. ;  and  fourth  grade,  3-5  mm. 

Prices  vary,  the  first  grade  usually  being  worth  three  times  as 
much  as  the  third  grade.  Sometimes  the  small  grades  are  kept 
in  France  and  grown  to  be  two  years  old.  The  buyer  has  to  put 
confidence  in  his  importer,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  things 
about  the  whole  nursery  business  is  the  fact  that  one  must  place 
confidence  in  the  grower  all  along.  In  the  case  of  plum  and 
cherry,  5-9  mm.  is  a  good  grade;  3-5  mm.  is  also  grown. 

With  plum,  cherry,  pear,  quince,  and  peach,  it  is  customary  to 
propagate  by  budding.  In  the  case  of  apples,  both  budding  and 
grafting  are  used.  I  am  speaking  now  with  particular  reference 


TIIK    Xt  KSKRY    IMHSTKY   i.\    XKW    YOK-K 


655 


to  Xew  York  conditions.  Grafts  may  be  made  with  the  whole 
root  of  the  seedling,  or  a  piece  root.  The  nursery  stock  arrives 
here  in  December  or  January  ;  during  the  months  of  February  or 
M  arch  the  nurserymen  graft  a  twig  of  the  current  year's  growth  - 
perhaps  about  six  inches  in  length  —  on  a  piece  of  root  three  or 
four  inches  in  length,  tie  it  with  a  piece  of  .cotton  and  put  it  away 
in  damp  sawdust  until  such  time  as  they  are  ready  to  plant.  If  the 
whole  root  is  used,  we  have  a  collar  graft,  because  the  graft  is 
made  about  the  collar  of  the  seedling.  The  seedlings  as  dug  are 
divided  into  two  classes — straight  roots  and  branched  roots. 
Straight  roots  are  preferred  for  grafting  because  two  grafts  can 
usually  be  secured  from  them,  the  branched  roots  being  reserved 
for  budding. 

There  is  a  tendency 
to  do  more  budding  be- 
cause the  grafted  tree 
seems  to  offer  more  op- 
portunity for  the  en- 
trance of  the  bacteria 
which  cause  crown  gall, 
trees  showing  it  not  be- 
ing considered  mer- 
chantable. With  some 
varieties,  such  as  Grav- 
enstein,  crown  gall 
seems  to  be  present  in 
the  trees  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  in  certain  sea- 
sons it  seems  to  be  al- 
most impossible  to 
produce  a  tree  free  therefrom.  The  present  system  of  discarding 
such  trees  entails  so  serious  a  loss  that,  unless  some  means  is 
secured  for  eradicating  some  of  these  troubles,  the  growers  of 
these  trees  will  be  forced  to  secure  much  higher  prices  or  go  out  of 
business. 

The  increase  in  value  per  acre  given  in  the  census  of  1909  as 
compared  with  that  of  1899,  does  not  measure  the  additional  cost 
which  is  now  incurred,  due  to  higher  labor  and  higher  require- 
ments; and  the  prospect  for  the  future  is  that  even  greater  care 


FIG.  167. —  REAR  VIEW  OP  THE  FIRMER,  USED 
TO.  PACK  EARTH  AROUND  NEWLY  PLANTED 
GRAFTS  OR  SEEDLIM;S 


656  •  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

must  be  taken  than  in  the  past,  with  the  consequent  employment 
of  a  better  type  of  labor  at  a  higher  salary,  in  order  that  the  con- 
fidence necessary  between  the  purchaser  and  the  producer  of 
nursery  stock  be  maintained. 

OUR    SEEDLIXGS 

A  century  ago  seedling  apple  trees  were  grown  in  Xew  York, 
and  whatever  the  fruit  proved  to  be  it  was  used  either  for  con- 
sumption or  cider.  Today,  we  plant  definite  varieties.  Xursery- 
men,  however,  use  seedlings  as  roots  for  these  varieties,  and  the 
characters  of  these  are  unknown.  The  so-called  French  Crab 
seedlings  are  the  young  plants  raised  from  seeds. collected  from 
native  fruits  found  growing  in  France,  just  as  we  might  collect 
from  our  wild  seedlings  in  Xew  York.  Some  of  these  seedlings 
are  strong  growers,  others  are  wreak ;  some  make  good  unions  with 
the  variety  put  upon  them,  others  "unite  poorly.  We  have  not 
standardized  our  roots ;  but,  as  soon  as  we  get  more  data,  this  will 
probably  be  the  next  advance. 

We  find  that  some  interesting  relationships  exist ;  for  instance, 
the  Twenty  Ounce  makes  a  more  rapid  growth  when  top-worked 
on  Baldwin  than  it  does  on  Xorthern  Spy.  I  believe  Tolmaii 
Sweet  to  be  a  better  trunk  than  Spy.  Wealthy  does  not  grow 
well  on  R.  I.  Greening,  although  R.  I.  Greening  grows  well  on 
Wealthy.  Some  of  the  apple  seedlings  we  use  for  roots  are  quite 
susceptible  to  fire  blight,  and  this  is  particularly  true  in  the  case 
of  the  French  pear  seedlings  we  use  for  our  pears.  The  Myro- 
balan  plum  we  use  is  but  moderately  satisfactory  for  plums.  The 
Mazzard  cherry  is  the  best  root  for  sweet  cherries.  The  Doucin 
and  Paradise  apple  stocks  are  propagated  by  layers,  .and  peach 
stocks  are  usually  grown  from  southern  peach  pits. 

The  root  is  half  the  tree.  Some  of  our  productive  individual 
trees  are  such,  very  probably  because  they  are  on  roots  which 
are  efficient  providers.  The  man  who  first  discovers  why  a  cer- 
tain tree  is  more  efficient  than  its  neighbor  can  revolutionize  the 
fruit-growing  business,  for  it  is  a  positive  fact  that  there  is  as 
high  a  percentage  of  boarder  fruit  trees  in  our  orchards  as  cows 
in  our  herds.  Why  ?  The  nurseryman  needs  to  know ;  it  is  his 
problem  as  well  as  the  orchardists. 


TIIK  .XTKSKKY    IMMSTUY    i  \    XKW   YORK  (ir>7 

AF  I' K  K-.M  A. \A<;K. \IK.\T 

After  the  little  seedlings  are  planted  and  tinned,  the  first  tiling- 
is  to  cultivate  them.  In  many  nurseries  a  one-horse  cultivator  is 
preferred;  it  is  run  twice  through  each  row-— uj)  one  side  and 
down  the  other  side  of  each  row  of  stock.  In  others,  two-horse 
cultivators  are  used.  Constant  horse-cultivation  is  given,  with  a 
hand-hoeing  whenever  necessary.  I'snally  the  attempt  is  made  to 
ii<>  through  with  but  one  hoeing  before  budding.  If  the  stock  has 
favoiahle  conditions  and  starts  (jnickly,  it  is  ready  to  bud  any 
time  after  the  middle  of  July.  Where  a  considerable  acreage  is 
to  be  gone  over,  it  is  well  to  begin  at  about  this  date  —  probably 
with  apples  or  pears,  finishing  these  in  time  to  do  the  cherries  in 
August  and  finish  the  peaches  the  early  part  of  September. 

Two  systems  are  employed  in  budding ;  in  one  a  man  sits  down 
on  a  sack  and  pushes  the  bud  upward,  while  in  the  other  he 
stands  and  bends  over  and  pushes  the  bud  down.  I  think  for 
apples  and  pears  it  makes  little  difference  which  is  used,  but  in 
cherry-growing  regions  the  pushing  of  the  bud  upward  seems  to 
be  preferred.  The  buds  are  tied  with  raffia,  and  usually  in  about 
three  weeks'  time  the  union  is  secured  and  strings  are  cut.  In 
the  following  spring  the  top  is  cut  off  the  seedling  just  above  the 
bud,  and  the  bud  starts  into  growth  and  forms  the  trunk  of  the 
new  tree.  When  this  is  one  year  old  —  that  is,  when  it  has 
grown  from  April  to  fall  —  it  may  be  sold  as  a  one-year  bud,  or 
it  may  be  grown  another  year  and  sold  as  a  two-year  bud. 

The  roots  of  a  two-year  bud  and  of  a  three-year  collar  graft 
are  the  same  age.  In  many  instances  the  graft  will  make  a 
larger  tree  than  the  bud,  and  it  is  often  practiced  because  it 
divides  the  work,  getting  a  certain  amount  of  it  done  in  winter. 
The  work  of  Professor  Stewart  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College 
indicates  that  there  is  no  difference  in  value  in  the  orchard 
between  a  bud  and  a  graft.  There  is,  however,  a  tendency  on 
the  part  of  purchasers  to  prefer  a  budded  tree.  The  writer  is 
practicing  budding  to  a  greater  extent,  because  one  has  more  con- 
trol over  the  propagation  in  that  the  buds  can  be  cut  and  given 
out  to  the  budders,  one  variety  at  a  time,  and  if  any  are  mislaid 
they  rapidly  dry  out  and  are  of  no  further  use;  whereas  the 


G58 


THE 


I.xnrsTKY  i.\   XE\V   YOKK  STATE 


Tin;  XIRSERY  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  659 

grafts  must  be  cut  in  fall  or  early  winter  and  put  away  for  early 
spring  use,  and,  if  some  are  mislaid  in  the  shop,  they  may  be 
mixed  with  others.  This  is  perhaps  merely  a  matter  of  shop 
regulation,  but  a  mixed  block  is  a  serious  problem. 

I  sually  a  better  stand  can  be  secured  from  a  graft  than  from 
a  bud,  and  if  one  does  not  have  the  trouble  from  galls  it  is  the 
most  profitable  way  to  propagate  apples. 

DIGGING 

The  nursery  stock  is  usually  dug  by  means  of  a  U-shaped 
blade,  which  is  run  down  the  rows,  severing  the  roots.  It  may  be 
hauled  by  horses  or  by  means  of  a  cable  attached  to  a  drum 
^driven  by  an  engine  at  the  end  of  the  row.  The  cable  saves  in- 
jury from  the  horses  to  the  limbs.  The  most  common  method  of 
hauling  is  by  the  use  of  twenty  horses. 

NURSERY    TROUBLES 

One  of  the  most  common  troubles  of  the  foliage  is  aphis.  If 
neglected,  the  little  green  aphis  causes  the  leaves  to  curl  and 
thoroughly  poisons  the  plant  system,  completely  stunting  it  if  not 
checked.  These  aphides,  not  being  equipped  with  a  complete 
digestive  system,  inject  a  ferment  into  the  plant  which  predigests 
the  sap ;  they  then  suck  this  predigested  sap  into  their  system.  It 
is  this  ferment  which  causes  the  stunting  of  the  tree  and  the 
serious  injury. 

So  far,  nurserymen  have  combated  these  in  a  perfunctory  sort 
of  way,  either  by  hand  washing  or  by  attempts  at  spraying.  A 
satisfactory  nursery  sprayer  is,  I  believe,  yet  to  be  built.  There 
are  several  which  are  more  or  less  satisfactory.  Nicotine  solu- 
tions and  fish-oil  soap  are  the  means  employed  to  combat  the 
aphis. 

The  question  of  crown  gall  and  hairy  root  of  the  apple  have 
already  been  referred  to  as  most  serious  menaces.  Elaborate 
investigations  have  been  made  in  regard  to  these  troubles,  of 
which  there  are  several  types.  Propagation  by  means  of  budding 
tends  to  reduce  both,  as  does  also  careful  cultivation  and  the 
avoiding  of  wet  soils,  and  prevents  injury  to  the  young  trees.  It  is 
important  that  buds  be  taken  from  trees  which  are  not  affected.  An 


660  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

important  distinction  must  be  made  between  a  fibrous-rooted 
tree  and  one  affected  by  hairy  root ;  a  sharp  distinction  must  also 
be  made  between  warts  or  pirnples  on  the  root  of  the  tree,  and 
crown  gall.  The  one  is  not  injurious;  the  other  may  be.  in 
other  words,  it  takes  an  expert  to  decide  whether  a  tree  is 
affected  by  a  disease  or  merely  carries  a  blemish. 

In  New  York,  even  trees  affected  by  hairy  root  and  crown  gall 
have  grown  just  as  well  as  those  which  were  not  affected ;  further 
south,  this  condition  may  not  be  true.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
Bulletin  186,  "  Field  Studies  of  the  Crown  Gall  and  Hairy 
Boot,"  by  Hedgcock,  also  to  Bulletins  213  and  255,  by  Dr.  E.  F. 
Smith,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

One  other  important  disease  which  may  attack  root  and  branch 
is  fire  blight.  No  other  means  than  the  absolute  removal  of  the 
affected  tree  seems  to  be  of  value. 

Powdery  mildew  is  controlled  by  spraying  with  lime-sulphur 
to  which  sulphate  of  iron  has  been  added. 

Scab  on  apple  and  shot-hole  fungus  on  the  cherry,  and  a 
number  of  other  diseases  of  the  leaves  are  controlled  by  spraying 
with  lime-sulphur  or  bordeaux  mixture.* 

HISTORY 

Within  the  past  fifty  years  the  commercial  nursery  came  into 
being.  William  Prince  of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  is  regarded  as  the 
pioneer  of  the  industry.  In  1825  his  son  issued  quite  a  com- 
prehensive catalogue  listing  several  hundred  species  and  varieties. 
The  development  of  commercial  orchard  plantings  in  Xew  York 
stimulated  this  branch  of  the  nursery  industry. 

Sixty  years  ago  no  city  in  the  United  States  had  purchased  an 
acre  of  land  for  park  purposes;  by  1899  there  were  probably 
75,000  acres  of  city  parks  upon  which  $11,000,000  per  year  were 
expended  for  maintenance  and  improvement,  and  the  increase 
since  that  time  has  been  remarkable. 

In  the  eastern  nurseries  the  attention  given  to  ornamentals  is 


*  See  Some  Important  Leaf  Diseases  of  Nursery  Stock,  Cornell  Bulletin 
No.  358;  The  Yellow-leaf  Disease  of  Cherry  and  Plum  in  Nursery  Stock,  Cor- 
nell Circular  No.  31;  The  Tarnished  Plant  Bug,  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  346. 


THE  NURSERY   IMHSTRY  i.\   NEW  YORK  661 

greater  than  that  given  to  fruit  tree  propagation.  The  planting 
of  ornamental  trees  in  the  Tinted  States  has  barely  begun.  The 
opportunities  for  research  and  progress  in  this  line  are  just  dawn- 
ing. What  we  should  plant  and  where  and  how  to  arrange  it  in 
order  to  get  effect  is  now  ivrriving  attention,  and  this  means  a 
demand  in  the  future. 

THI-:    ITKCIIASE   OF   NURSERY   STOCK 

The  purchaser  of  nursery  stock  must  have  confidence  in  the 
nurseryman.  Frequently  he  cannot  tell  whether  a  tree  is  an 
apple  or  a  pear  —  much  less  what  variety  it  is,  or  whether  it  is 
a  well-grown  specimen  for  its  age.  The  determination  of  all 
these  points  demands  expert  knowledge,  which  few  purchasers  of 
nursery  stock  possess.  The  price  is  the  one  thing  the  purchaser 
realizes;  the  value  of  the  purchase  he  often  fails  to  determine. 
Trees  of  the  same  variety,  size,  and  appearance  may  vary  in  value 
because  they  differ  in  age.  If  there  is  a  local  nursery  and  the 
owner  is  of  good  repute,  it  is  generally  one  of  the  safest  places 
to  go.  There  grows  up  an  interchange  of  confidence  which  is 
necessary  in  all  business.  Failing  this,  one  may  take  an  expert 
along  and  visit  the  blocks  of  trees  in  a  nursery  and  have  the 
same  expert  inspect  the  trees  on  arrival;  or  the-still  more  com- 
mon method  is  to  deal  with  a  reputable  firm,  pay  a  fair  price  — 
that  is,  a  price  which  leaves  a  living  profit  in  the  hands  of  the 
nurseryman  —  and  rely  on  his  integrity.  The  man  who  regards 
price  as  the  index  of  value  usually  gets  the  low  price  and  goods 
of  a  value  equivalent  to  the  price.  The  nurseryman  who  sells  at 
cost,  or  says  so,  is  a  knave  or  a  fool,  and  in  either  event  you  do 
not  want  to  deal  with  him.  There  are  a  number  of  reputable 
nurserymen  in  all  parts  of  Xew  York,  who  are  anxious  to  con- 
duct a  clean  and  honorable  business,  and  the  purchaser  needs  to 
approach  them  in  the  same  spirit. 


VARIOUS    METHODS    OF   REFRIGERATION    AND    ITS 
ADVANTAGE  TO  THE  PUBLIC 

GEORGE  H.  McKAY 

Superintendent,  Reading  Terminal  Market,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

For  years  refrigeration  was  openly  dis- 
cussed with  disapproval  by  people  who 
did  not  understand  or  who  wilfully  mis- 
represented it  to  the  public.  However,  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  the  people  in  general 
have  been  enlightened  by  government  in- 
vestigations and  by  the  interest  taken  by 
the  different  states  in  the  subject,  and  it 
has  been  proven  to  be  the  only  safe  and 
sane  method  of  preserving  food  products. 
Especially  is  it  of  advantage  in  times 
of  overabundance  and  of  oversupplied  markets. 

DIFFERENT    METHODS    OF    REFRIGERATION 

There  are  several  methods  of  artificial  refrigeration,  but  the 
most  popular  ones  are  the  ammonia-expansion  and  the  brine 
systems. 

By  the  former  method,  ammonia  is  expanded  by  coils  of  pipes 
in  the  rooms;  where  by  the  latter  system  the  brine  is  previously 
cooled  by  having  been  circulated  in  pipes  submerged  in  tanks  or 
cooling  coils.  The  brine  is  then  pumped  through  coils  into  the 
rooms.  The  latter  method  is  the  most  popular,  since  it  keeps  rooms 
at  a  more  even  temperature. 

However,  there  is  another  system  which  must  not  be  forgotten 
—  the  old  method  of  cooling  and  preserving  products  by  ice. 
This  is  inexpensive  and  advisable  in  climates  cold  enough,  where 
ice  as  easily  procurable,  also  where  goods  need  not  be  kept  below  36 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  goods  below 
this  degree,  a  compartment  can  be  built  and  salt  added  to  the  ice. 
By  having  an  up  draft  open  at  all  times,  and  the  downtake  with 
slides  to  close  the  openings,  a  fairly  even  temperature  may  be 
maintained. 

[662] 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ITS  ADVANTAGE  TO  THE  PUBLIC 


664 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  i.\  NEW   YORK  STATE 


The  up-to-date  plant  for  today  is  the  gas  producer,  which  is 
run  by  gas  or  oil  engines  instead  of  boilers.  Either  one  of  these 
machines  can  be  used  very  economically,  and,  compared  with  the 
boilers  and  steam,  in  the  ratio  of  7  to  1  in  the  former  with  20  to 
1  in  the  latter;  that  is,  by  the  old  method  of  boilers  we  made 
seven  tons  of  ice  with  one  ton  of  coal,  while  vvith  the  new  method 
of  gas  producer  or  oil  engines  we  can  make  20  tons  of  ice  with 
1  ton  of  coal.  This  same  ratio  applies  to  refrigeration,  but  it 
doubles  its  capacity  when  the  temperature  is  above  32  degrees. 

The  making  of  artificial  ice  also  for  commercial  purposes  is  a 
great  blessing,  as  it  is  chemically  pure,  and,  since  the  sources  of 
natural  ice  have  become  contaminated  and  unfit  for  household 
use,  it  should  always  be  used  in  preference. 


FIG.  170. —  COLD  STORAGE  HOUSE  AT  KENDALL,  ORLEANS  (  OI.MI 

(Courtesy  of  Kendall  Cold  Storage  Co.,  Kendall,  N.  Y.) 
SMALL    PLANTS    FOR    FARMERS 

Since  most  of  the  large  cities  and  towns  demand  that  the  milk 
supply  shall  not  be  above  60  degrees  F.,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  milk  cooled  before  shipment,  thus  necessitating  refrigerating 
plants  for  farmers  and  dairymen.  Therefore,  hundred  of  these 
small  plants  are  being  erected  by  farmers  and  used  for  holding 
fruit  as  well  as  milk. 


REFRIGERATION   A.M>   ITS  ADVANTAGE  TO  THE  PUBLIC     665 

The  cheapest  way  to  refrigerate  is  where  there  is  access  to 
water  power,  which  saves  the  expense  of  installing  steam  boilers 
and  buildings  attached.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  refrigerating 
plant  IK>  located  on  the  stream,  since  electricity  can  be  generated 
and  the  power  sent  any  distance  desired. 

GROWTH    OF   REFRIGERATION 

When  refrigeration  was  first  put  into  operation  it  was  used 
mostly  for  butter,  then  demand  was  made  for  the  storing  of  eggs, 
later  poultry  and  meats,  then  apples. 

For  the  last  five  years  nearly  all  food  —  that  is  about  80  per 
cent  of  all  food  products  in  the  United  States  —  has  been  refrig- 
erated. Within  the  last  few  years  New  York  has  increased  her 
storage  capacity  100  per  cent,  and  many  of  her  products  are  put 
away  by  speculators  in  times  when  they  are  cheap,  and  are  held  for 
higher  prices.  This  applies  more  especially  to  apples  and  pears, 
while  the  West  stores  immense  quantities  of  eggs  and  poultry. 
Pennsylvania  also  stores  a  great  many,  besides  nearly  all  other 
farm  products  at  certain  times  of  the  year. 

TIIK    I;KAIU.\<;    TKH.MISAL   MARKET^ 

At  the  Reading  Terminal  Market,  Philadelphia,  there  is,  no 
doubt,  one  of  the  largest  markets  in  the  world  where  the  man- 
ager caters  to  the  grower  and  to  the  interest  of  the  producer,  and 
where  the  grower  can  store  his  goods  and  then  sell  at  either 
retail  or  wholesale  and  at  a  good  profit.  For  instance,  we  have 
some  farmers  who  put  away  from  5000  to  6000  barrels  of  apples. 
Out  of  20,000  barrels  of  apples  which  we  have  stored,  95  per 
cent  are  from  people  who  grow  them,  many  of  whom  have  stands 
in  the  market  where  they  can  retail  their  apples  at  a  good  profit. 
To  show  how  profitable  it  is,  we  have  farmers  from  Pennsylvania, 
Xew  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland  who  rent  stalls  and  come 
this  distance  from  these  four  states  respectively,  four  times 
each  week. 

Out  of  some  thirty  markets  which  existed  twenty-five  years 
ago  in  Philadelphia  there  is  only  one  besides  the  Terminal 
Market  which  is  a  success,  and  I  attribute  it  entirely  to  refrig- 
eration. The  farmers  can  ship  their  goods  by  rail  during  the 


666 


THE  .FKUIT  LXDUSTKY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ITS  ADVANTAGE  TO  THE  PUBLIC     667 

summer  in  refrigerated  cars  direct  to  the  refrigerating  depart- 
ment, where  they  may  be  kept  any  desired  length  of  time.  If 
goods  are  not  sold  from  the  stands  during  the  day  they  can  be 
returned  to  the  refrigerating  department  again;  while,  in  other 
markets,  whatever  time  the  farmers  were  obliged  to  return  home 
soon  became  known,  and  people  learned  to  wait  and  take  ad- 
vantage of  their  selling  at  reduced  rates  in  order  to  close  out 
their  goods.  This  discouraged  hundreds  of  farmers  and  caused 
them  to  give  up  their  stands  in  the  markets. 

ADDITIONAL    COLD    STORAGE    NECESSARY 

It  is  my  opinion  that,  in  order  to  give  the  producer  an  oppor- 
tunity, large  markets  and  storage  houses  or  refrigerating  plants 
must  he  erected  in  dit'ierent  parts  of  the  city.  Xot  only  steam 
but  trolley  lines  should  have  their  switches  run  directly  into  the 
plants,  so  that  when  perishable  produce  is  plentiful  it  could  be 
held  until  later  when  the  fanners  could  realize  a  good  price. 

While  a  groat  deal  of  discussion  has  been  going  on  and  much 
money  spent  by  the  state  in  the  distribution  of  farm  products, 
and  while  we  have  raised  a  splendid  crop  of  products,  it  has  been 
very  discouraging  for  the  farmer;  the  prices  he  received  were  en- 
tirely inadequate  for  the  labor  expended.  There  has  been  no 
method  of  holding  his  goods  until  the  market  becomes  better. 

KEEPING    PEACHES    AND    PEAS 

The  last  few  years  we  have  been  making  a  special  effort  to 
keep  peas  and  peaches.  We  found  that  they  can  be  kept  from 
four  to  five  weeks  and  come  out  in  good  condition.  Many  cases 
of  peaches  were  put  in  at  fifteen  cents  per  basket  and  in  three 
weeks  were  sold  for  from  forty  to  eighty  cents  per  basket.  Peas 
put  away  when  they  practically  could  not  be  sold  were  kept  three 
weeks  and  then  sold  at  from  fifty  to  sixty  cents  per  basket. 

The  thorough  investigation  now  in  progress  in  New  York  has 
established  the  fact  that,  while  there  are  large  refrigerating  plants 
in  the  cities  and  also  in  the  country,  yet  they  are  not  sufficient 
for  the  storage  of  products,  or  else  they  are  operated  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  speculator. 


668 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix   XEW  YORK  STATE 


PRODUCER  AXD  COXSUMER  SHOULD  BE  BROUGHT  TOGETHER 

The  farmers  should  organize  and  instruct  their  representatives 
in  the  legislature  to  endeavor  to  have  laws  passed  which  would 
improve  facilities  of  refrigerating  farm  products  for  the  farmer ; 
also  to  keep  in  touch  with  railroad  officials  for  better  transporta- 
tion and  large  refrigerating  warehouses  where  products  could  he 
stored.  In  interviews  with  officials  of  the  several  railroads  enter- 


FIG.  172. —  3,600  BASKETS  OF  PEACHES  IJ\T  STORAGE 

At  the  time  they  were  stored  peaches  were  selling  for  fifteen  cents  a  basket; 
when  taken  out  of  storage  these  peaches  sold  for  $1.10  a  basket 

ing  Pennsylvania  and  Xew  York,  I  find  they  are  exceedingly 
anxious  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  get  the  producer  into  closer 
touch  with  the  consumer. 

Measures  are  heing  taken  for  the  erection  of  more  terminals 
and  markets  where  the  producer  can  sell  his  products  more 
directly  to  the  consumer  and  thus  decrease  the  high  cost  of  living. 
These  measures,  with  the  scientific  methods  of  farming  whereby 
more  and  better  food  can  be  produced  per  acre,  will  increase  the 
profit  of  the  farmer  as  well  as  bring  more  wholesome  food  to 
the  consumer. 


THE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW 

B.   D.   VAX   BI-RKX 

Assistant  Chief,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,   New  York  State  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Albany.  N.   Y. 

This  law  is  the  outgrowth  of  several 
years  of  legislation,  starting  with  the  op- 
tional grading  law,  which  made  practically 
no  improvement  in  the  grade  of  apples 
packed  by  Xew  York  State  growers  or 
dealers  during  its  operation.  In  1914  this 
law  was  amended  and  made  compulsory, 
its  provisions  applying  to  all  apples  grown 
in  Xew  York  State  and  packed  in  closed 
packages  for  sale,  with  the  one  exception 
that  apples  packed  and  branded  in  accord- 
ance with  the  federal  law  were  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  this 
law. 

The  law  as  passed  in  1914  was  favored  and  supported  by  the 
various  fruit  growers7  associations  of  the  state  and  also  by  the 
National  Apple  Shippers'  Association,  which  Las  a  large  mem- 
bership in  this  state.  A  clause  in  the  law  put  its  enforcement 
into  the  hands  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  but  did  not 
make  it  a  part  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Law.  On 
account  of  this  fact,  and  because  of  certain  conflicting  clauses  in 
the  law  passed  in  1914  and  the  provision  therein  that  only  those 
who  knowingly  violated  it  were  subject  to  prosecution,  its  en- 
forcement was  found  to  be  practically  impossible,  and  the  legis- 
lature of  1915  passed  a  new  apple  grading  law  and  repealed  the 
law  passed  in  1914.  This  new  law  was  made  part  of  the  agri- 
cultural law  of  New  York  State,  and,  therefore,  its  enforcement 
became  one  of  the  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture. 

Under  the  agricultural  law  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
or  his  agents  have  the  right  to  enter  warehouses,  stores,  etc.,  and 
open  and  inspect  packages,  all  of  which  is  a  great  aid  in  enforcing 
a  law  of  this  character.  In  this  new  law,  passed  in  1915,  the 
conflicting  clauses  were  largely  eliminated,  as  was  that  part  of 

[660] 


670  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

the  law  holding  only  those  who  knowingly  violated  its  provisions 
to  be  guilty  and  subject  to  fine.  The  apple  growers  of  the  state 
evidently  thought  such  a  law  was  needed  to  protect  the  consumer 
and  also  raise  the  reputation  of  the  packs  and  grades  of  our 
apples. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  the  work  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  done  this  year,  together  with  the  cooperation  of 
a  large  number  of  the  commercial  growers  and  packers  within  the 
state,  has  resulted  in  greatly  improving  the  grading  of  apples 
packed  in  closed  packages.  During  November  and  December, 
1915,  at  least  80  per  cent  of  the  apples  being  marketed  in  such 
packages  were  packed  and  branded  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  law.  Lack  of  color,  the  fungus  known  as  apple 
scab,  the  fungus  known  as  sooty  blotch,  and  insect  injuries 
caused  by  codling  moth  larvae,  curculio,  aphis,  and  red  bug  are 
apparently  the  most  troublesome  defects  to  the  grower  and  packer. 
Of  these,  apple  scab  has  given  the  packer  as  much  trouble  as  all 
the  rest  combined,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  either  New  York  standard 
fancy,  New  York  standard  A,  or  New  York  standard  B  grade  can 
be  packed  from  a  crop  infected  with  apple  scab,  particularly  if 
the  apples  are  held  for  any  length  of  time  after  packing  or  are 
delayed  to  any  extent  in  transit. 

The  texture  and  flavor  of  New  York  apples  are  of  the  best,  and 
their  appearance  in  many  instances  cannot  be  excelled,  but  the 
quality  of  the  pack  in  the  past  has  been  so  unreliable  that  the 
best  retailers  have  been  afraid  to  handle  the  goods.  The  law  is 
changing  this  situation  rapidly,  and  its  influence  is  already  being 
felt  in  that  it  is  making  the  movement  of  apples  more  easy,  and 
the  buyers  feel  that  there  is  beginning  to  be  something  much  more 
definite  about  the  grade  of  the  apples  grown  and  packed  in  the 
Empire  State. 

AGRICULTURAL  LAW  IN  RELATION  TO  APPLES 

§  262.  That  the  standard  grades  or  classes  for  apples  grown  in 
this  state  when  packed  in  closed  packages  shall  be  as  follows : 

First :  "  New  York  standard  fancy  grade  "  shall  consist  of 
apples  of  one  variety,  which  are  well  grown  specimens,  hand- 
picked,  properly  packed,  of  good  color  for  the  variety,  normal 
shape,  free  from  dirt,  diseases,  insect  and  fungus  injury,  bruises 


THE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW  671 

and  other  defects  except  such  as  are  necessarily  caused  in  the 
operation  of  packing ;  or  apples  of  one  variety  which  are  not  more 
than  five  per  centum  below  the  foregoing  specifications  on  a  com- 
bination of  all  defects  or  two  per  centum  on  any  single  defect. 

Second :  "  Xew  York  standard  A  grade  "  shall  consist  of  apples 
of  one  variety  which  are  well  grown  specimens,  hand-picked,  prop- 
erly packed,  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  dirt,  diseases,  in- 
sect and  fungus  injury,  bruises  and  other  defects  except  such  as 
are  necessarily  caused  in  tho  operation  of  packing;  or  apples  of  one 
variety  which  are  not  more  than  ten  per  centum  below  the  forego- 
ing specifications  on  a  combination  of  all  defects  or  five  per  centum 
on  any  single  defect.  ~No  apples  in  this  grade  shall  show  less  than 
thirty-three  and  one-third  per  centum  of  good  color  for  the  variety. 

Third :  "  New  York  standard  B  grade  "  shall  consist  of  apples 
of  one  variety  which  are  well  matured,  hand-picked,  properly 
packed,  practically  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  dirt,  dis- 
eases, insect  and  fungus  injury;  or  apples  of  one  variety  which 
are  not  more  than  fifteen  per  centum  below  the  foregoing  specifi- 
cations on  a  combination  of  all  defects  or  five  per  centum  on  any 
single  defect. 

Fourth:  "  "Ungraded."  Apples  not  conforming  to  the  foregoing- 
specifications  of  grade,  or,  if  conforming,  arenot  branded  in 
accordance  therewith,  shall  be  classed  as  ungraded  and  so  branded. 
The  minimum  size  of  the  fruit  in  the  package  shall  also  be 
branded  upon  it  as  hereinafter  specified  and  in  addition  to  the 
other  marks  hereinafter  required. 

The  marks  indicating  grade  as  above  prescribed  may  be  accom- 
panied by  any  other  designation  of  grade  or  brand  if  that  designa- 
tion or  brand  is  not  inconsistent  with  or  marked  more  con- 
spicuously than  the  one  of  the  said  four  marks  which  is  used  on 
the  said  package.  Apples  packed  and  branded  in  accordance  with 
the  United  States  law  approved  August  third,  nineteen  hundred 
and  twelve,  shall  be  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

The  minimum  size  of  the  fruit  in  all  classes  or  grades,  includ- 
ing the  ungraded,  shall  be  determined  by  taking  the  transverse 
diameter  of  the  smallest  fruit  in  the  package  at  right  angles  to 
the  stem  and  blossom  end.  Minimum  sizes  shall  be  stated  in  varia- 
tions of  one-quarter  of  an  inch,  like  two  inches,  two  and  one-quar- 
ter inches,  two  and  one-half  inches,  two  and  three-quarter  inches, 


672  TJIE  FRUIT  IXDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

three  inches,  three  and  one-quarter  inches,  and  so  on,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  facts. 

Minimum  sizes  may  be  designated  by  figures  instead  of  words. 
The  word  "  minimum  "  may  be  designated  by  using  the  abbrevia- 
tion "min." 

A  tolerance  or  variation  of  five  per  cenium  on  size  shall  be 
allowed  in  all  classes,  but  such  five  per  centum  shall  not  be  in  addi- 
tion to  the  variations  or  tolerances  for  defects  provided  in  grades 
"  Fancy,"  "  A  "  and  "  B."  ' 

(A)  Every  closed  package  containing  apples  grown  in  the  state 
of  New  York  which  is  sold,  offered  or  exposed  for  sale,  or  packed 
for  sale,  or  transported  for  sale  by  any  person  shall  bear  upon  the 
outside  of  one  end  in  plain  letters  and  figures  the  name  and  ad- 
dress of  the  packer  or  the  person  by  whose  authority  the  apples 
were    packed    and    the    package    marked,    the  true    name   of  the 
variety,  the  grade  or  class  of  the  apples  therein  contained  and  the 
minimum  size  of  the  fruit  in  the  packages.     If  the  true  name  of 
the  variety  shall  not  be  known  to  the  packer  or  the  person  by 
whose  authority  the  package  is  packed    or    branded,    then    such 
variety  shall  be  designated  as  "  unknown."     Every   package    of 
apples  which  is  repacked  shall  bear  the  name  and  address  of  the 
repacker  or  the  name  of  the  person  by  whose  authority  it  is  re- 
packed in  place  of  that  of  the  original  packer. 

(B)  The  marks  or  brands  as  prescribed  by  this  act  shall  be  in 
block  letters  and  figures  of  size  of  not  less  than  thirty-six  point 
Gothic. 

(C)  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  within  the  state  to 
sell,  offer  or  expose  for  sale,  or  pack  for  sale,  or  transport  for  sale 
apples  which  are  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning 
of  this  act, 

(D)  For  the  purposes  of  this    act    apples    packed  in  a  closed 
package  shall  be  deemed  to  be  misbranded. 

First.  If  the  package  shall  fail  to  bear  the  statements  required 
by  this  act. 

Second.  If  the  package  shall  be  falsely  branded  or  shall  bear 
any  statement,  design  or  device  regarding  such  apples  which  is 
false  or  misleading,  or  if  the  package  bears  any  statement,  design, 
or  device,  indicating  that  the  apples  contained  therein  are  a  given 
New  York  "  standard  grade  "  and  said  apples  when  packed  or 
repacked  do  not  conform  to  the  requirements  of  such  grade. 


THE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW  G73 

(E)  For  tlio  purposes  of  this  act  apples  packed  in  closed  pack- 
ages shall  be  deemed  to  be  adulterated  if  their   quality   or  grade 
when  packed  or  repacked  does  not  conform  to  the  marks  upon  the 
package. 

(F)  Any  person  who  misbrands  or  adulterates  apples  within 
the  meaning  of  this  act,  or  who  violates  any  of  the  provisions  of 
this  act  shall,  upon  conviction    thereof,    forfeit  and  pay  to    the 
people  of  the  state  of  New  York  a  sum  of  not  less  than  twenty- 
five  dollars  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars  for  the  first  violation  and 
not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for 
each  subsequent  violation. 

(G)  Xo  person  shall  be  prosecuted  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act  when  he  can  establish  satisfactory  evidence  to  the  effect  that  he 
was  not  a  party  to  the  packing  and  grading  of  such  articles  and 
had  no  knowledge  that  the  same  were  misbranded    or    illegally 
packed,  or  when  he  can  establish  a  guaranty,  signed  by  the  person 
from  whom  he  received  such  articles,  to  the  effect  that  the  same 
are  not  adulterated   or  misbranded   within   the   meaning  of  this 
act.     Said  guaranty,  or  said  satisfactory  evidence,  to  afford  pro- 
tection, shall  contain  the  true  name  and  address  of  the  party  or 
parties  from  whom  said  articles  were  received,  or  who  made  the 
sale  or  shipment  of  such  articles  to  such  person. 

(H)  Definitions.  The  word  "  person "  as  used  herein  shall 
be  construed  to  include  both  the  singular  and  plural,  individuals, 
corporations,  copartnerships,  companies,  societies  and  associations. 
The  act,  omission  or  failure  of  any  officer,  agent,  servant  or  em- 
ployee acting  within  the  scope  of  his  employment  or  office  shall 
be  deemed  the  act,  omission  or  failure  of  the  principal.  The 
words  u  closed  package  "  shall  mean  a  box,  barrel  or  other  pack- 
age, the  contents  of  which  cannot  be  seen  or  inspected  when  such 
package  is  closed. 

(I)  No  person  shall  on  behalf  of  any  other  person  pack  any 
apples  for  sale  or  transportation  contrary  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act. 

(J)  This  act  shall  not  apply  to  apples  actually  transported  in 
barrels  to  storage  within  this  state  until  the  same  are  sold,  offered 
or  exposed  for  sale,  packed  for  sale,  or  transported  for  sale, 
Regulations  and  requirements  herein  in  relation  to  transportation 
shall  not  apply  to  common  carriers. 

§  2.  Chapter  four  hundred  and  eighteen  of  the  laws  of 
nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen,  entitled  "An  act  to  regulate  the 


674  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  irf  NEW  YORK  STATE 

grading,  packing,  marking,  shipping  and  sale  of  apples/'  is  hereby 
repealed. 

§  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  July  first,  nineteen  hundred  and 
fifteen. 

APPLICATION   OF  THE   LAW 

This  law  applies  to  all  apples  grown  in  the  state  of  New  York 
and  packed  in  closed  packages  for  sale. 

INTERPRETATION  OF  TERMS 

New  York  Standard  Fancy  Grade 

"  Well  grown  specimens."-  -  They  must  be  mature,  but  not  over- 
ripe. 

"  Properly  packed."-  -  The  package  itself  must  be  standard  in 
size  and  neat  in  appearance.  The  fruit  should  be  properly 
stemmed  and  tailed.  The  specimens  should  be  packed  firmly  but 
not  bruised.  That  the  quality  may  be  maintained,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  flexible  cushion  be  placed  between  the  fruit  and  the  cover. 

"  Normal  shape."-  -  Characteristic  shape  of  the  variety. 

"  Good  color."-  -  Color  as  interpreted  by  this  department  refers 
to  the  amount  and  not  the  shade.  For  a  few  common  varieties  the 
minimum  allowance  of  amount  constituting  "  good  color  "  is  given. 
The  red  varieties,  such  as  Baldwin,  Tompkins  King,  Northern 
Spy,  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  Jonathan,  Mclntosh,  Ben  Davis,  Sut- 
ton,  Alexander,  Wealthy,  Fameuse,  and  the  like,  must  have  75  per 
cent  of  the  surface  covered. 

Varieties  having  slightly  less  color  than  the  above,  such  as  Hub- 
bardston,  Gravenstein,  Rome,  Oldenburg,  Wagener,  and  the  like, 
must  have  at  least  60  per  cent  of  the  surface  colored  with  some 
shade  of  red. 

Varieties  of  still  less  color,  such  as  Maiden  Blush,  Winter 
Banana,  and  the  like,  must  have  at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  surface 
colored  with  some  shade  of  red. 

Yellow  or  green  varieties,  such  as  Rhode  Island,  Grimes,  Yel- 
low Newtown,  and  the  like,  must  have  the  characteristic  color  of 
the  variety. 

New  York  Standard  A  Grade 

"  Well  grown  specimens."-  -  They  must  be  mature,  but  not  over- 
ripe. 

"  Properly  packed."-  -  The  package  it-self  must  be  standard  in 
size  and  neat  in  appearance.  The  fruit  should  be  properly 

NOTE. —  For  representative  specimens  of  the  varieties  and  descriptions 
thereof,  the  packer  is  referred  to  "  The  Apples  of  New  York,"  which  is 
standard. 


THE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW  675 

stemmed  and  tailed.  The  specimens  should  be  packed  firmly  but 
not  bruised.  That  the  quality  may  be  maintained,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  flexible  cushion  be  placed  between  the  fruit  and  the  cover. 

61  Normal  shapo."-  —  Characteristic  shape  of  the  variety. 

"  Practically  free."-  -  Means  that  apples  having  small  defects, 
so  few  in  number  as  not  to  injure  the  appearance  or  keeping  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit,  are  allowed  in  this  grade.  These  defects  are 
allowed  in  addition  to  the  tolerance  percentage. 

"  Thirty-three  and  one-third  per  centum  of  good  color." — Means 
that  all  apples  within  the  package  must  show  at  least  one-third  the 
amount  of  color  required  in  New  York  Standard  Fancy  grade,  as 
outlined  on  page  674.  For  example,  the  red  varieties  mentioned 
above  must  have  one- third  of  75  per  cent,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the 
surface  covered,  and  so  on. 

New  York  Standard  B  Grade 

"  Properly  packed."-  -  The  package  itself  must  be  standard  in 
size  and  neat  in  appearance.  The  fruit  should  be  properly 
stemmed  and  tailed.  The  specimens  should  be  packed  firmly  but 
not  bruised.  That  the  quality  may  be  maintained,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  flexible  cushion  be  placed  between  the  fruit  and  the  cover. 

"  Practically  normal  shape."-  -  Apples  slightly  irregular  in 
shape  may  be  included. 

"  Practically  free."-  -  Means  that  apples  having  small  defects, 
so  few  in  number  as  not  to  injure  the  appearance  or  keeping 
quality  of  the  fruit,  are  allowed  in  this  grade.  These  defects  are 
allowed  in  addition  to  the  tolerance  percentage. 

Ungraded 

Apples  marked  ungraded  are  not  a  New  York  Standard  Grade, 
and  closed  packages  marked  "  ungraded  "  can  be  packed  in  any 
manner  that  the  owners  or  persons  responsible  for  the  packing 
desire.  They  must  also  be  marked  in  addition  to  the  word 
"  ungraded  "with  the  name  and  address  of  the  packer,  the  name 
of  the  variety  and  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  contained 
therein. 

BRANDING  OF  CLOSED  PACKAGES 

The  following  statements  must  appear  upon  closed  packages  of 
New  York  Standard  Grade  apples,  packed  under  the  provisions  of 
this  law : 


676  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YOEK  STATE 

1.  The  name  and  address  of  the  packer. 

2.  The  word    or    letter    indicating   the    grade   of  apples 
packed  within  the  package    and    associated    with  the  words 
"  New  York  Standard  Grade.7' 

3.  The  name  of  the  variety.     If  variety  is  not  known,  the 
package  should  be  marked  "  Unknown." 

4.  The  minimum  size  of  the  apples  packed  within  the 
packages.    The  word  "  minimum  "  must  be  used,  or  the  abbre- 
viation "min.,"  together  with  the  figures  indicating  the  diame- 
ter of  the  smallest  fruit  in  the  package,  and  not  more  than 
five  per  cent  of  the  total  quantity  of  fruit  within  the  closed 
package  can  be  below  the  size  marked  upon  the  package. 

The  above  required  statements  must  appear  upon  the  outside  of 
one  end  of  the  package.  They  may  be  branded  or  stenciled  thereon, 
or  pasters  bearing  such  may  be  used.  These  statements  must  be 
in  block  letters  and  figures  in  type  the  size  of  thirty-six  point 
Gothic  or  larger. 

36  PT. 
GOTHIC 

The  following  are  samples  of  markings,  one  of  which  should 
appear  on  all  closed  barrels  or  closed  packages  of  apples  grown 
and  packed  for  sale  in  the  State  of  New  York : 

NEW  YORK  STANDAED  FANCY  GRADE 

MIX.  2-INCH  BALDAYIX 
JOHN  JONES,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 

NEW  YORK  STANDARD  A  GRADE 

MIX.  2-INCH  BALDWIN 
JOHN  JONES,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 

NEW  YORK  STANDARD  B  GRADE 

MIN.  2-TNCII  BALDWIN 
JOHN  JONES,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 

UNGRADED  MIX.  2-INCH  BALDWIN 
JOHN  JONES,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 


THE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW  677 

PERCENTAGE  OF  TOLERANCE 

Percentage  of  tolerance  refers  to  total  quantity  and  may  be 
expressed  or  computed  in  terms  of  quarts  or  weights. 

STORING  OF  APPLES 

Closed  packages  of  apples  can  be  transported  to  storages  within 
the  state  for  storage  without  marking  them,  but  such  closed  pack- 
ages of  apples  must  be  graded,  packed  and  marked  in  a  way  to 
comply  with  the  law  before  they  are  removed  in  closed  packages 
from  the  storage  for  sale  or  transportation  for  sale. 

CLOSED    PACKAGES 

"  Closed  packages  "  means  all  double-headed  or  burlap-covered 
barrels,  boxes,  baskets  or  other  packages,  the  contents  of  which 
cannot  be  seen  when  closed. 

REPACKING  OF  CLOSED  PACKAGES 

Any  person  responsible  for  the  repacking  in  New  York  State  of 
closed  packages  of  apples  for  sale,  that  were  grown,  packed,  and 
branded  in  New  York  State,  must  erase  the  name  and  address  of 
the  original  packer  and  substitute  his  own.  Apples  not  raised  in 
New  York  State  cannot  be  branded  as  New  York  State  apples. 
(See  second  clause  under  Subdivision  D,  bottom^ojf  page  672.) 

The  New  York  Standard  apple  barrel  is  of  the  following  meas- 
urements and  capacity:  Head  17%  inches,  stave  28!/o  inches 
long,  capacity  7,056  cubic  inches,  bilge  64  inches  outside  measure- 
ments, distance  between  heads  26  inches. 

VIOLATIONS   OF  THE  LAW 

If  closed  packages  of  apples  not  properly  branded  —  or,  if 
branded,  and  the  contents  do  not  conform  to  the  marks  branded 
upon  the  package  within  the  limits  of  tolerance  —  are  sold,  offered 
or  exposed  for  sale,  packed  for  sale,  or  transported  for  sale,  the 
owner  or  person  responsible  for  packing  or  branding  such  apples 
violates  the  law,  and  is  subject  to  such  penalties  as  are  provided  in 
Subdivision  F.  (See  page  673.) 

UNITED  STATES  APPLE  GRADING  LAW 

Apples  packed  and  branded  in  accordance  with  the  United 
States  Law,  approved  August  3,  1912,  do  not  have  to  be  branded 
or  graded  in  accordance  with  the  New  York  State  Apple  Grading 
Law.  A  copy  of  the  United  States  law  follows : 


678  THE  FKUIT  ISDUSTBY  is  NEW  YOKK  STATE 

[Public  —  X o.  252.] 

[H.  R.  21480.] 

An  Act  To  establish  a  standard  barrel  and  standard  grades  for  apples  when 
packed   in  barrels,   and   for   other   purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  standard  barrel  for  apples 
shall  be  of  the  following  dimensions  when  measured  without  distention  of 
its  parts:  Length  of  stave,  twenty-eight  and  one-half  inches;  diameter  of 
head,  seventeen  and  one-eighth  inches;  distance  between  heads,  twenty-six 
inches;  circumference  of  bulge,  sixty-four  inches  outside  measurement,  repre- 
senting as  nearly  as  possible  seven  thousand  and  fifty-six  cubic  inches: 
Provided,  That  steel  barrels  containing  the  interior  dimensions  provided  for 
in  this  section  shall  be  construed  as  a  compliance  therewith. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  standard  grades  for  apples  when  packed  in  barrels  which 
shall  be  shipped  or  delivered  for  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce, 
or  which  shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  within  the  District  of  Columbia  or 
the  Territories  of  the  United  States  shall  be  as  follows:  Apples  of  one 
variety,  which  are  well-grown  specimens,  hand  picked,  of  good  color  for  the 
variety,  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  insect  and  fungous  injury,  bruises, 
and  other  defects,  except  such  as  are  necessarily  caused  in  the  operation  of 
packing,  or  apples  of  one  variety  which  are  not  more  than  ten  per  centum 
below  the  foregoing  specifications  shall  be  "  Standard  grade  minimum  size 
two  and  one-half  inches,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two  and 
one-half  inches  in  transverse  diameter;  "  Standard  grade  minimum  size  two 
and  one-fourth  inches,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two  and  one- 
fourth  inches  in  transverse  diameter ;  or  "  Standard  grade  minimum  size  two 
inches,"  if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apples  is  two  inches  in  transverse  diameter. 

SEC.  3.  That  the  barrels  in  which  apples  are  packed  in  accordance  with  the 
provision  of  this  Act  may  be  branded  in  accordance  with  section  two  of  this 
Act. 

SEC.  4.  That  all  barrels  packed  with  apples  shall  be  deemed  to  be  below 
standard  if  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating  that 
the  barrel  is  a  standard  barrel  of  apples,  as  herein  defined,  and  the  capacity 
of  the  barrel  is  less  than  the  capacity  prescribed  by  section  one  of  this  Act, 
unless  the  barrel  shall  be  plainly  marked  on  end  and  side  with  words  or 
figures  showing  the  fractional  relation  which  the  actual  capacity  of  the  barrel 
bears  to  the  capacity  prescribed  by  section  one  of  this  Act.  The  marking 
required  by  this  paragraph  shall  be  in  block  letters  of  size  not  less  than 
seventy-two  point  one-inch  gothic. 

SEC.  5.  That  barrels  packed  writh  apples  shall  be  deemed  to  be  misbranded 
within  the  meaning  of  this  Act — 

First.  If  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating  that 
the  apples  contained  therein  are  "  Standard "  grade  and  the  apples  when 
packed  do  not  conform  to  the  requirements  prescribed  by  section  two  of  this 
Act. 

Second.  If  the  barrel  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating  that 
the  apples  contained  therein  are  "  Standard "  grade  and  the  barrel  fails  to 
bear  also  a  statement  of  the  name  of  the  variety,  the  name  of  the  locality 
where  grown,  and  the  name  of  the  packer  or  the  person  by  whose  authority 
the  apples  were  packed  and  the  barrel  marked. 

SEC.  6.  That  any  person,  firm  or  corporation,  or  association  who  shall  know- 
ingly pack  or  cause  to  be  packed  apples  in  barrels  or  who  shall  knowingly 
sell  or  offer  for  sale  such  barrels  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  Act 
shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  one  dollar  and  costs  for  each  such  barrel  so 
sold  or  offered  for  sale,  to  be  recovered  at  the  suit  of  the  United  States  in 
any  court  of  the  United  States  having  jurisdiction. 

SEC.  7.  That  this  Act  shall  be  in  force  and  effect  from  and  after  the  first 
day  of  July,  nineteen  hundred  and  thirteen. 

Approved,  August  3,  1912. 


THE  APPLE-PACKING  TRAIN 

F.  S.  WKLSII,  Xcw  York  City 
Agriculturist,  New  York  Central  Railroad 

When  the  New  York  apple  grading  law 
was  amended  by  the  legislature  of  1914— 
15,  it  seemed  desirable  that  something 
should  be  done  to  acquaint  growers  and 
shippers  with  the  changes  that  had  been 
made,  and,  with  the  requirements  of  the 
new  law. 

After  consultation  with  a  number  of 
men  interested  in  the  apple  industry,  it 
was  decided  that  an  effort  should  be  made 
in  this  direction  by  means  of  an  apple 
packing  demonstration  train  to  be  op- 
erated by  the  New  York  Central  railroad  in  cooperation  with 
the  State  Department  of  Agriculture.  A  schedule  was  arranged 
which  would  take  the  train  to  the  important  apple-producing 
sections  of  the  state,  and  exhibits  were  planned  to  illustrate 
clearly  the  meaning  of  the  law  and  to  carry  information  regarding 
the  various  phases  of  apple  packing. 

The  train  consisted  of  three  cars.  A  baggage  car  carried  bar- 
rels of  fruit  properly  packed  and  labeled,  closed  packages,  sten- 
cils, and  models  of  mechanical  graders  of  various  types.  The 
exhibits  were  so  arranged  that  they  could  be  easily  inspected  by 
visitors,  who  would  also  have  an  opportunity  to  talk  at  length 
with  attendants  in  the  car. 

The  second  car  was  equipped  as  a  lecture  hall,  with  an  espe- 
cially designed  screen  for  showing  slides  and  charts  by  means  of 
a  stereopticon  lantern.  This  car,  with  seats  for  approximately 
one  hundred  people,  also  carried  a  case  of  models  and  a  series  of 
colored  illustrations  showing  the  color  requirements  for  different 
varieties  according  to  the  grades  established  by  the  law. 

The  third  car  furnished  sleeping  and  living  accommodations  for 
the  attendants,  who  were  to  make  this  their  home  during  the  three 
weeks'  trip  of  the  train,  from  August  2  to  August  22. 

[679] 


680  THE  FRTIT  INDUSTRY  ix  ^EW  YORK  STATE 

The  New  York  State  Department  of  Agriculture  was  repre- 
sented by  Messrs.  B.  D.  Van  Buren,  William  Hotaling,  and  G.  F. 
Wheaton.  Professor  H.  B.  Knapp  of  the  Department  of  Po- 
mology, State  College  of  Agriculture,  was  also  secured  by  the 
department  to  accompany  the  train,  which  was  in  charge  of  the 
writer. 

The  train  made  stops  of  from  two  to  three  and  one-half  hours 
at  each  station,  the  cars  heing  located  as  conveniently  as  possible 
to  the  Xew  York  Central  passenger  stations. 

AVhen  the  cars  were  opened  for  visitors,  a  period  of  about 
thirty  minutes  was  allowed  for  inspection  of  the  mechanical 
graders  and  for  questioning  the  attendants  regarding  the  exhibits. 
After  this  a  meeting  was  called  in  the  assembly  car,  where  Profes- 
sor Knapp  discussed  the  text  of  the  apple  grading  law,  emphasizing 


FIG.    173. —  APPLE    PACKING  —  TRAIN,    AND    MEN 
\Vno  GAVE  ADVICE  TO  APPLE  PACKERS 

the  important  changes  in  the  grades  from  the  preceding  year, 
and  the  fact  that  the  law  is  now  a  part  of  the  agricultural 
law,  and  that,  therefore,  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  had 
greater  powers  in  securing  its  enforcement  than  had  previously 
been  the  case. 

After  Professor  Knapp  had  explained  the  requirements  of  the 
present  law,  Mr.  Van  Buren,  as  a  representative  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture,  explained  the  interpretations  which  had 
been  made  with  reference  to  various  terms  of  the  law.  Mr.  Van 
Buren  explained  that  the  department  would  consider  "  closed 


THE  APPLE- PACKING  TRAIN  681 

packages"  to  mean  "all  double-headed  or  burlap-covered  barrels, 
boxes,  baskets,  or  other  packages,  the  contents  <>!'  \vliich  could 
not  be  seen  when  closed/'  and  lie  illustrated  from  the  case  of 
models  and  by  charts  what  would  be  considered  as  "good  color" 
for  the  various  varieties.  Other  forms  of  the  law,  such  as  "well 
grown  specimens,"  "properly  packed,"  "normal  shape,"  and 
"  practically  free "  from  insect  and  fungus  injury,  were  also 
illustrated  by  models  or  actual  specimens  of  fruit. 

Following  a  question  box  on  the  matters  emphasized  by  Profes- 
sor Knapp  and  ^Ir.  Van  Buren,  another  phase  of  the  apple  packing 
question  was  discussed;  namely,  the  possibility  of  central  pack- 
ing houses  in  securing  better  packing,  a  more  uniform  pack,  and 
facilitating  marketing."'  The  writer,  of  the  New  York  Central 
railroad,  who  had  spent  some  time  in  gathering  information  as  to 
the  methods  of  operation  of  central  packing  houses  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  I  nited  States  and  in  Canada,  where  a  compulsory 
apple  packing  law  exists,  presented  this  matter  and  illustrated  his 
remarks  by  a  series  of  lantern  slides. 

f  Prof.  Knapp  followed  with  a  series  of  lantern  slides  show- 
ing monthly  receipts  of  apples  on  the  New  York  markets,  cover- 
ing a  period  of  twenty  years,  and  the  average  prices  of  different 
varieties  by  months  over  the  same  period,  and  drew  some  interest- 
ing conclusions  as  to  the  most  profitable  varieties  for  storage  and 
the  most  desirable  time  for  selling  these  varieties.  He  also  com- 
pared the  export  of  apples  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  and 
pointed  out  the  distribution  of  export  apples  to  the  various  foreign 
countries,  together  with  the  varieties  preferred  in  these  countries. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  slides  showed  the  result  of  in- 
quiries sent  out  to  produce  men  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States, 
requesting  information  as  to  sources  of  supply,  or  the  states  from 
which  they  drew  their  apples.  The  replies  showed  that  the 
number  of  dealers  preferring  New  York  apples  was  more  than 
double  the  number  of  those  that  expressed  a  preference  for  apples 
from  other  districts.  Professor  Knapp  argued  from  these  figures 
that,  with  the  proper  packing  and  grading  of  New  York  apples, 
growers  would  have  little  to  fear  from  competition  in  other  dis- 
tricts more  remote  from  the  great  markets  of  the  East. 


*  See  article  on  central  packing  houses,  page  895. 
t  See  article  by  Prof.  Knapp,  page  927. 


682  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

During  and  following  these  discussions  in  the  assembly  car, 
Mr.  Wheaton  and  Mr.  Hotaling  were  in  consultation  in  the 
exhibit  coach  with  growers  who  had  special  problems  upon  which 
they  desired  information.  The  opportunity  to  discuss  these  mat- 
ters of  special  personal  interest  with  the  attendants  proved  to  be 
one  of  the  most  valuable  features  of  the  train.  Growers  who 
were  uncertain  as  to  how  to  pack  hail-marked  apples,  or  as  to 
the  grade  in  which  apples  with  minor  defects  should  be  placed, 
received  definite  and  first-hand  information  on  these  points,  and 
did  actual  grading  of  fruit-  under  the  direction  of  these  repre- 
sentatives of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  noticeable  result  of  the  operation  of  the  train  was  that  many 
growers,  who  were  at  first  somewhat  puzzled  as  to  the  require- 
ments, found  that  the  complexity  of  the  law  was  not  nearly  so 
great  as  they  had  thought,  and  became  strong  advocates  of  the 
measure  which  they  formerly  had  felt  was  burdensome.  When 
once  it  was  seen  that  the  law  was  practicable,  and  designed  to 
minimize  dishonest  packing  practices  which  bring  New  York 
apples  into  bad  repute,  growers  heartily  endorsed  the  law  as  a 
necessary  and  desirable  step  in  protecting  the  reputation  of  Xew 
York  State  apples  and  in  insuring  the  continuance  of  conditions 
that  will  make  it  possible  to  grow  them  profitably. 

An  inquiry  relating  to  the  quantity  of  apples  stored  in  the 
coolers  this  year  has  been  completed  by  the  Office  of  Markets  and 
Rural  Organization,  Washington,  D.  C.  The  number  of  storages 
responding  to  the  inquiry  is  an  increase  of  62  over  the  number 
reporting  on  December  ],  1914,  and  an  increase  of  45  over  the 
largest  number  reporting  for  any  month  during  last  season's 
investigation. 

Information  was  also  secured  as  to  the  amounts  of  apples  held 
in  cold  storage  on  December  1,  1914,  in  order  that  the  conditions 
this  year  may  be  compared  with  those  existing  at  the  opening  of 
the  cold  storage  season  last  year. 

Three  hundred  and  fifty-one  firms,  having  a  storage  capacity 
of  8,056,365  barrels,  reported  their  holdings  for  December  1, 
1915,  as  the  equivalent  of  5,399,691  barrels.  Of  these  firms,  339, 
having  an  approximate  capacity  of  7,906,838  barrels,  reported 
the  equivalent  of  5,332,157  barrels;  while  on  December  1,  1914, 


THE  APPLE-PACKING  TRAIN  683 

they  reported  4,r»17,331.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  there 
were  15.5  per  cent*  more  apples  in  cold  storage  on  December  1, 
1915,  than  on  the  same  date  one  year  ago. 

Of  the  351  firms  reporting,   230  indicate  that  of  their  total 
holding,  29.24  per  cent  is  subject  to  the  orders  of  growers. 

Sixty-one  storages  in  New  York  State  reported  their  holdings 
as  follows: 

Dec.  1,  1915  Dec.  1,  1914 

Barrels 1,327,231  1,319,251 

Boxes 249,313  252,370 

Estimating  that  three  boxes  are  equivalent  to  one  barrel,  the 
report  of  1915  indicates  an  increase  of  .5  per  cent. 


A i 


INSPECTION  WORK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE IN  RELATION  TO  HORTICULTURE 

I  hi.   GEORGE   G.   ATWUUD 

Chief,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Xe\v  York  State  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Albany,  X.  Y. 

The  present  organization  of  the  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  consists  of  George  G. 
Atwood,  Chief;  B.  D.  Van  Buren,  As- 
sistant Chief;  H.  C.  Sands,  Pathologist. 
There  are  twelve  inspectors  having 
charge  of  divisions  of  the  state,  located 
permanently  at  convenient  points  for  at- 
tention to  the  several  requirements  of  the 
law.  Assistants  are  given  to  these  inspec- 
tors in  greater  or  less  number,  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  work  required  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  total  number  of  employees  of  the  bureau  at  the  present 
time  is  thirty-six.  This  includes  two  stenographers  and  one 
copyist  and  illustrator. 

The  expenses  of  the  bureau  for  the  last  ten  years  has  averaged 
about  fifty  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 

The  practical  work  of  the  bureau  may  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing heads : 

1.  Xursery  inspection. 

2.  Shipment  inspection. 

3.  Foreign  shipment  inspection. 

4.  Scouting  inspection. 

5.  Orchard  work. 

6.  Pathological  inspection  and  investigation. 

7.  Inspections  under  the  Apple  Grading  Law. 

8.  Insecticides  and  fungicides. 

9.  Bee  inspection. 
10.  Miscellaneous. 

[684] 


\\T<>KK  i.\   RKLA-I  i<>.\  TO  Hoimcr  LTUUE       085 


NUKSEKY    INSPECTION 

The  inspection  of  nursery  stock  was  first  provided  for  by  the 
enactment  of  a  law  in  1898,  at  which  time  there  was  much  alarm 
among  the  nurserymen  and  fruit  growers  of  the  state  over  the 
discovery  of  two  localities  in  the  state  of  New  York  that  had 
become  infested  with  San  Jose  scale.  Other  states  were  passing 
laws  requiring  that  all  nursery  stock  shipped  into  the  several 
states  should  bear  a  copy  of  a  certificate  of  inspection  indicating 
apparent  freedom  from  -San  Jose  scale.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  work  practically  nothing  was  known  of  the  extent  of  the 
nursery  business  in  the  state  of  New  York,  neither  was  there 
any  information  relative  to  the  volume  of  business  conducted  by 
the  nurserymen  with  other  states.  Our  first  statute  on  this  sub- 
ject was  drawn  broad  enough  to  include  any  contagious  or  in- 
fectious disease  or  diseases,  or  the  San  Jose  scale  or  other  dan- 
gerously injurious  insect  pest  or  pests,  and  the  act  provided  that 
the  certificates  to  'be  issued  to  the  nurserymen  should  embrace 
the  idea  of  apparent  freedom  from  all.  The  law  required  the 
annual  inspection  of  all  growing  nursery  stock  in  the  state  of 
Xew  York,  and  ar  the  present  time  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  inspect  over  ten  thousand  acres  of  nursery  stock,  grown  by 
about  six  hundred  and  sixty  nurserymen.  SomS  of  these  nurs- 
eries are  small,  but  the  law  requires  that  no  nursery  stock  shall  be 
shipped  from  any  point  in  the  state  of  New  York  unless  there  be 
attached  to  each  box,  bundle  or  package  a  copy  of  the  certificate  of 
inspection  issued  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture.  Trans- 
portation companies  are  forbidden  to  receive  any  nursery  stock 
for  shipment  unless  accompanied  by  .said  copy  of  certificate. 

SHIPMENT    INSPECTION 

An  amendment  to  the  law  was  made  in  1910  for  two  reasons: 
(1)  The  inspection  authorities  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts 
announced  that  they  would"  not  commit  themselves  in  their  certifi- 
cates of  inspection*  to  nurserymen  or  give  any  assurance  that 
the  nursery  stock  shipped  from  Massachusetts  would  be  free 
from  egg  masses  of  the  gipsy  moth,  the  reason  given  being  that 
the  winter  form  of  this  injurious  insect  was  so  obscure  that 
certain  evergreen  trees  on  which  the  egg  masses  are  located  could 
not  be  adequately  inspected  ;  (  2  )  the  same  year  consternation 


686  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

prevailed,  among  the  nurserymen  of  the  state,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  shipments  of  nursery  seedlings-  and  stocks  from*  abroad  were 
arriving  in  this  state  badly  infested  by  the  winter  nests  of  brown- 
tail  moth. 

Neither  of  these  pests  have  become  established  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  and  extreme  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  their 
coming  and  to  avoid  their  distribution.  The  amendment  of  the 
law  provided  that  all  nursery  .stock  coming  into  the  state  should 
be  examined  at  point  of  destination.  To  carry  out  this  pro- 
vision, the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  was  authorized  to  issue 
orders  relative  to  injurious  insect  control  and  the  control  of 
deleterious  fungous  diseases  of  trees  and  plants.  Under  this 
authority  he  issued  orders  requiring  all  persons  who  received 
nursery  stock  from  points  outside  of  the  state  of  New  York  to 
hold  them  unpacked  and  unopened  until  an  inspector  could  be 
present  to  examine  the  shipments.  This  work  has  been  followed 
up  to  the  extent  of  an  examination  of  about  eight  thousand  ship- 
ments a  year.  This  particular  line  of  work  is  rather  expensive, 
though  it  has  been  justified  many  times  by  the  discovery  of  in- 
fested stocks  of  trees  and  plants  which  surely  would  have  caused 
the  establishment  of  deleterious  pests  within  our  borders.  It  may 
seem  unnecessary  to  go  so  far  as  to  examine  small  packages  of 
nursery  stock,  but  it  is  through  the  careless  introduction  of  small 
packages  that  great  injury  may  accrue. 

Owing  to  the  short  time  during  which  nursery  shipments  are 
received  in  the  state,  it^is  not  strange  that  occasionally  some 
packages  may  be  overlooked.  In  two  cases  this  has  occurred, 
and  the  eggs  of  the  gipsy  moth  were  brought  into  the  state  of 
New  York  and  became  established  in  limited  localities.  In  one 
case  the  cost  of  eradication  may  have  been  as  much  as  five  thou- 
sand dollars;  and  in  another  case,  where  the  gipsy  moth  had  a 
little  longer  time  to  spread  in  the  wild  and  mountainous  regions 
of  AVestchester  County,  the  expense  of  suppression  may  have  been 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars.  These  expenditures  were  justified 
on  the  ground  that,  inasmuch  as  this  pest  had  not  become  estab- 
lished within  the  state,  every  effort  should  be  exerted  to  stamp  it 
out  at  the  very  beginning  of  its  development.  When  one  considers 
that  the  New  England  states  spent  upwards  of  ten  millions  of 
dollars  for  the  control  of  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths,  it 


INSPECTION  WORK  IN  RELATION  TO  HORTICULTURE       687 

would  seem  that  no  criticism  could  arise  upon  our  attempting  to 
eliminate  the  very  iirst  outbreak.  The  inspection  of  shipments 
coming  into  this  state  indicate  that  the  longer  the  law  is  enforced 
the  more  satisfactory  is  the  nursery  stock  received,  on  account  of 
the  remarkable  freedom  from  insects  and  diseases. 

FOREIGN    SHIPMENT    INSPECTION 

Closely  related  to  the  shipment  inspection  above  indicated,  the 
examination  of  about  four  thousand  shipments  of  foreign  nursery 
stock  annually  has  led  to  the  same  general  satisfactory  results  as 
indicated  in  the  movement  of  nursery  stock  from  other  states  into 
this.  The  brown-tail  moth,  though  found  in  shipments  from 
France  during  two  years,  has  not  become  established  in  the  state 
through  shipments  of  nursery  stock.  A  small  outbreak  of  brown- 
tail  moths  on  the  extreme  eastern  end  of  Long  Island  was  un- 
doubtedly caused  by  being  wind-spread  from  states  north  of  the 
Sound. 

We  occasionally  find  egg  masses  of  the  gipsy  moth  on  azaleas 
coming  from  Belgium  and  other  foreign  countries.  The  gipsy 
and  brown-tail  moths  are  two  particular  insects  requiring  atten- 
tion, though  there  are  several  others  which  are  occasionally  found, 
and,  when,  new  to  the  state,  special  efforts  are  made,  to  prevent  their 
becoming  established.  Notable  among  the  insects  is  a  new  pine- 
shoot  moth,  which  destroys  the  terminal  growth  and  would  be 
very  injurious  to  the  development  of  trees  for  forestry  planting. 
This  insect  is  known  at  only  seven  points  in  the  state,  and  annual 
inspections  are  made  to  see  that  it  does  not  spread. 

SCOUTING    INSPECTION 

The  permanent  phase  of  the  work  under  this  heading  is  the 
attention  given,  during  the  winter  and  other  seasons  when  nurs- 
ery shipment  inspections  are  not  urgent,  to  canvassing  with 
great  care  the  sections  of  the  state  where  a  possibility  exists  of 
infestation  of  gypsy  moth — especially  along  the  New  England 
borders  of  the  state  —  to  locate  if  possible  any  hidden  outbreak 
of  gypsy  or  brown-tail  moth.  It  is  hoped  that  by  diligence  the 
introduction  of  the  gipsy  moth  may  be  prevented  for  many  years 
to  come,  owing  to  the  comparatively  slow  habit  of  spread  of  this 
particularly  destructive  insect. 


688  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTBY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

On  the  brown-tail  moth  we  should  continue  the  contest  as 
long  as  possible,  though  the  time  may  come  when  this  pest  shall 
come  upon  us  because  of  its  great  habit  of  night,  it  having  been 
known  to  spread  many  miles  in  a  single  season.  Prevailing  west- 
erly winds  may  help  us  to  some  extent,  and  we  now  have  hopes 
that  the  natural  parasitic  enemies  of  this  pest  may  ultimately 
reduce  the  danger.  Recent  developments  in  New  England  are 
to  the  effect  that  the  brown-tail  moth  is  not  largely  increasing  its 
habitation  there. 

Considerable  attention  is  continually  given  to  the  plantings 
made  by  the  park  systems  of  the  state,  and  also  to  those  of  the 
private  grounds  of  large  estates  wherever  extensive  plantings 
have  been  made  of  imported  trees  in  the  last  fifteen  years. 

ORCHARD    WORK 

As  the  inspectors  of  the  department  have  opportunity  from 
time  to  time,  attention  is  given  to  an  inspection  of  orchards  in 
various  parts  of  the  state  with  a  view  of  assisting  the  owners 
in  the  control  of  dangerously  injurious  insects  and  fungous  dis- 
eases. Since  there  is  no  law  requiring  orchardists  to  spray  their 
trees,  as  has  been  adopted  in  the  western  states  for  the  eradication 
of  codling  moth  and  similar  insects,  our  work  must  be  confined 
to  the  destructively  injurious  types. 

When  the  San  Jose  scale  appeared  in  1898,  the  orchardists 
themselves  were  very  much  alarmed  and  believed  that  it  would 
be  only  a  short  time  before  their  industry  would  be  exterminated. 
At  that  time  it  was  believed  that  the  only  remedy  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  scale  was  to  have  the  trees  dug  out  wherever  infection 
was  discovered.  A  few  orchards  were  condemned  and  destroyed, 
and  it  was  at  least  five  years  later  before  an  adequate  remedy 
was  found  for  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale.  Formulae  used  up  to 
that  time  were  more  destructive  than  the  scale  itself,  and  the 
idea  became  apparent  that  something  must  be  done  to  find  a 
remedy  and  save  the  fruit  as  well  as  the  trees.  The  department 
decided  that  no  more  orchard  trees  should  be  destroyed,  but  that 
the  then  so-called  lime-sulphur-salt  solution  should  be  used,  if 
necessary  under  compulsory  orders  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture. Since  that  time  the  rapid  improvement  of  insecticides 


INSPECTION  WORK  i.\  RELATION  TO  HORTICULTURE       689 

and  the  remarkable  development  of  spraying  apparatus  have  been 
sufficient  not  only  to  save  the  trees  from  the  scale  insects,  but  to 
improve  and  save  the  fruit  from  the  attacks  of  minor  pests;  and 
the  enormous  crops  of  fruit  that  are  grown  in  this  state  at  present 
indicate  that  the  industry  has  been  saved  and  that  the  losses  feared 
by  the  fruit  growers  have  not  been  realized. 

PATHOLOGICAL     INSPECTION     AND    INVESTIGATION 

Within  the  last  year  the  department  has  been  able  to  give 
particular  attention  to  such  pathological  inspection  as  was  made 
necessary  by  the  discovery  of  the  powdery  scab  of  the  potato,  a 
newly  imported  disease  that  threatened  the  potato  industry  of 
the  state,  together  with  a  fear  that  the  wart  disease  of  the  potato 
might  be  introduced,  to  the  further  destruction  or  injury  to  the 
crop.  The  crop  produced  annually  in  this  state  is  valued  at  fifty 
millions  of  dollars  and  should  certainly  receive  attention  —  the 
best  that  can  be  given.  The  work  along  this  line  has  been  ex- 
tensive and  the  information  collected  relative  to  the  importance 
of  potato  seed  regulation  is  very  convincing.  There  are  at  least 
a  ha  If -dozen  leading  diseases  of  this  important  crop,  most  of 
which  could  be  controlled  under  an  adequate  inspection  service. 

There  are  also  many  other  diseases  of  trees  -and  plants  that 
properly  receive  attention  under  our  existing  laws.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  obscure  diseases  of  the  peach,  the 
blights  and  cankers  of  the  fruit  trees,  the  chestnut  bark  disease, 
and  the  growth  of  bacterial  diseases  of  plants,  the  scientific 
investigation  of  which  has  quite  recently  led  to  interesting  and 
remarkable  development. 

Foreign  countries,  and  especially  those  of  South  America, 
demand  certificates  of  inspection  for  vegetable  products  expected 
to  carry  insect  or  fungous  troubles  likely  to  cause  loss  in  their 
respective  areas.  At  present  this  applies  mainly  to  potatoes,  but 
indications  point  to  the  fact  that  it  very  likely  will  include  many 
others.  The  government  of  the  Bermuda  Islands  has  gone  so 
far  as  to  require  field  inspections  of  the  growing  plants  in  the 
country  of  origin.  These  inspections  are  made  in  cooperation 
with  a  representative  of  their  government  sent  here  for  the  pur- 
pqse.  This  work  is  fast  assuming  many  varied  forms. 


690  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

APPLE   GRADING   LAW 

^so  specific  appropriation  was  made  for  the  enforcement  of 
this  law;  therefore,  not  to  exceed  ten  inspectors  were  withdrawn 
from  other  duties  and  have  devoted  considerable  attention  to  a 
collection  of  evidence  for  violations  since  the  first  of  September. 
The  burden  of  this  work  has  been  in  charge  of  the  Asssistant 
Chief  of  the  Bureau,  Mr.  B.  1).  Van.  Buren,  who  has  prepared 
an  article  relative  to  the  work.  See  page  669. 

INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 

Legislation  in  recent  years  has  had  a  tendency  to  improve 
very  largely  the  chemicals  used  by  our  nurserymen  and  fruit 
growers  for  the  purpose  of  exterminating  insect  pests  and  pre- 
venting the  injury  from  fungous  diseases.  The  law  requires 
manufacturers  within  the  state  and  dealers  in  original  packages 
of  commodities  manufactured  outside  of  the  state  to  file  an  appli- 
cation with  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  which  application 
must  contain  the  percentage  of  essential  ingredients  to  be  offered 
on  the  market.  It  is  further  required  that  the  labels  on  the  pack- 
ages shall  be  the  same  as  embodied  in  the  application.  This  sys- 
tem of  labeling  enables  the  purchaser  to  know  what  he  is  buying. 
Over  three  thousand  of  these  certificates  have  been  issued.  An 
average  of  more  than  one  hundred  samples  a  year  are  collected 
in  the  open  market  and  sent  as  the  law  requires  to  the  ~New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  where  analyses  are  made  and 
published.  The  statements  made  in  the  application  for  cer- 
tificates and  labels  upon  the  packages  constitute  a  guarantee  to 
the  purchaser  as  to  the  quality  of  insecticides  and  fungicides 
offered. 

BEE    INSPECTION 

Bee  inspection  consists  of  an  attempt  to  control  and  eradicate 
the  brood  diseases  of  bees,  and  is  done  under  an  Act  passed 
about  twenty  years  ago,  at  a  time  when  the  eastern  counties  of 
the  state  were  threatened  with  brood  diseases  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  industry  of  honey  production  was  sadly  reduced.  At  the 
present  time  little  or  no  disease  appears  in  the  counties  where 
the  diseases  were  most  virulent.  These  diseases  appear  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  keepers  of  apiaries  must  be  instructed  as 


INSPECTION  WOUK  i.\   RKLATION  TO  HORTICULTURE       G91 

to  the  manipulation  of  them,  but  occasionally  it  is  necessary  to 
have  colonies  destroyed  to  prevent  the  spread  in  local  communities. 
A  system  of  quarantine  regulations  has  been  adopted,  prevent- 
ing the  selling  of  diseased  colonies  which  are  placed  by  order 
of  the  Commissioner  under  quarantine  regulations  for  this  pur- 
pose. One  difficult  feature  of  the  management  of  this  work 
i>  I  lie  fact  that  beekeepers  are  widely  scattered  over  the  state, 
and,  the  industry  not  being  an  extensive  one,  the  homes  of  the 
beekeepers  are  often  many  miles  from  convenient  means  of 
communication. 

Another  duty  of  bee  inspectors  is  to  attend  various  meetings 
of  the  associations  of  the  state  and  impart  such  knowledge  as 
they  possess  relative  to  the  art  of  beekeeping. 

MISCELLANEOUS   WORK   OF  THE  BUREAU 

In  cooperation  with  another  bureau  of  the  department  it 
becomes  necessary  for  inspectors  of  this  bureau  to  examine  and 
report  upon  orchard  conditions,  for  the  benefit  and  informa- 
tion of  purchasers  of  the  farms  offered  for  sale  through  the 
department. 

The  bureau  is  also  called  upon  to  make  exhibits  at  the  state 
and  county  fairs  and  other  assemblages  to  infornriocal  organiza- 
tions relative  to  the  care  of  their  trees. 

Shade  tree  problems  of  great  importance  are  placed  before 
the  bureau  and  include  the  question  of  the  control  of  such  insect 
pests  as  are  injuring  the  hickory,  hemlock,  and  pine  trees  in 
various  portions  of  the  state.  The  blister  rust  of  the  pine,  the 
chestnut  bark  disease  and  other  problems  require  much  attention ; 
and  it  is  believed  wherever  a  request  has  'been  made  that  the 
department  has  met  the  requirements  of  all  applicants  and  that 
much  local  good  has  been  done. 

The  inspectors  of  the  department  are  often  called  upon  to 
attend  meetings  and  deliver  addresses  on  various  horticultural 
topics,  including  assistance  to  the  farmers'  institutes. 

The  bureau  has  also  done  considerable  cooperative  work  with 
Professor  F.    0.    Stewart,   Botanist   at   Xew  York   Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,   on   pine  rust   and   potato   and   other  plant 
diseases,  and  with  Dr.  Felt,  State  Entomologist,  Professor  Parrott, 


692  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  iy  NEW  YORK  STATE 

of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and  others,  in 
the  investigations  of  intricate  entomological  problems.     Recently, 
attention  has  been  given  to  careful  studies  of  the  pear  psylla,  the 
pear  thrips,  sinuate  pear  borer,  potato  diseases,  and  other 
drances  to  the  proper  development  of  the  horticultural  intc 
of  the  state. 

The  bureau  has  also  worked  in  cooperation  with  the  Supr 
tendent   of   State  Forests   in  the  handling   and   control   of   the 
destructive  blister  rust  of  the  pine. 

As  it  is  becoming  more  generally  known  that  persons  are  engaged 
in  the  growing  of  trees  in  propagating  beds  or  nurseries,  or  in 
the  park  systems  on  large  estates;  also  on  account  of  the  shade 
tree  problems  of  the  municipalities,  the  work  of  the  bureau  is 
growing  rapidly  and  involves  an  extensive  correspondence,  the 
object  of  which  necessitates  its  being  conducted  promptly.,  giving 
the  best  inf6rmation.  If  for  any  reason  full  and  adequate  re- 
sponse to  correspondents  cannot  be  given,  references  are  made 
wherever  it  is  possible  to  get  satisfactory  answers  to  inquiries. 

In  the  year  1914,  an  unprecedented  outbreak  of  grasshoppers 
appeared  in  seven  counties,  principally  in  the  sandy  soil  sections 
north  and  northwest  of  Albany.  Quite  late  in  the  season,  demon- 
stration measures  were  conducted  on  several  hundred  farms  to 
show  the  farmers  how  the  use  of  poison  bait  would  be  effective 
in  destroying  the  grasshoppers  and  saving  the  crops.  It  developed 
that  the  work  was  not  begun  quite  early  enough  in  the  season, 
but  many  valuable  crops  were  saved  and  much  good  was  done  to 
the  farmers  on  those  light  lands. 

The  same  year  there  was  a  widespread  outbreak  of  army  worm 
caterpillars,  extending  from  Long  Island  to  Chautauqua  county. 
Considerable  attention  was  given  to  demonstrating  the  control 
methods  for  this  pest.  These  insects  have  not  appeared  to  a 
very  destructive  extent  this  year.  The  outbreak  of  grasshoppers 
in  Saratoga  County  and  further  north  began  early  in  the  season, 
and  our  demonstration  work  against  them  was  as  extensive  as 
our  funds  would  permit,  hundreds  of  farmers  receiving  assist- 
ance in  controlling  the  grasshopper  plague.  Lesser  demonstra- 
tions were  conducted  in  other  parts  of  the  state,  with  the  result 
that  we  are  now  convinced  that  if  farmers  will  use  the  poison 


[NSPECTION  WOKK  i.\  RELATION  TO  HORTICULTURE 

baij.  carefully,  to  the  extent  of  a  few  cents  an  acre  at  the  -right 
.time,  the  so-called  grasshopper  plag'ue  may  be  wholly  averted. 

The  library  of  the  department  has1  over  sixty  thousand  index 
cards  relating  to  horticultural  and  agricultural  matters. 

A  few  bulletins  and  circulars  have  been  issued  from  time  to 
time,  written,  with  the  intention  of  conveying' the  idea  of  control  of 
insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases  in  a  form  that  can  be  under- 
stood by  those  who  are  not  specially  trained  in  the  technical 
aspects  of  the  case. 

The  following  circulars  and  -bulletins  in  relation  to  horti- 
culture are  available  for  distribution : 

Horticultural  Bulletin  Xo.  2. —  Blister  Rust  of  Pines  and 
European  Currant  Rust. 

Department  Bulletin  Xo.  41. —  Wart  Disease  of  the  Potato. 

Department  Bulletin  Xo.  61. —  Peach  Yellows  and  Little 
Peach. 

Circular  Xo.  32. —  Law  Relating  to  Insecticides  and  Fungicides. 

Circular  Xo.  58. —  Insect  Pests,  Fungous  Diseases  and  Spray 
Formulae. 

Circular  Xo.  67. —  Relating  to  Fumigation  of  Bud  Sticks  and 
Xnrsery  Stock. 

Circular  Xo.  68. —  Law  Relating  to  Insects-  Pests  and  Fungous 
Diseases  and  Xursery  Inspection. 

Circular  Xo.   64. —  Dying  Hickory  Trees'. 

Circular  Xo.  97. —  Diseases  of  the  Honey  Bee  and  Treatment. 

Circular  Xo.  112. —  Tent  Caterpillar  and  Control. 

Circular  X"o.  113. — Arbor  Day,  Xew  York*  State. 

Circular  Xo.  118. —  Xew  York  Standard  A-pple  Grading  Law 
and  Information,  of  Interest  to  Fruit  Growers,  Dealers  and 
Purchasers. 

Circular  Xo.  119. —  List  of  Certified  Xurserymen  in  the  State 
of  Xew  York. 

Circular  Xo.  120. —  Inspection,  Certification  and  Transporta- 
tion of  Xursery  Stock,  United  States,  all  $tates  an(j  Canada. 

Chapter  127,  Laws»of  1915. — Act  Relating  to  the  Sale  of  Fruit- 
bearing  Trees. 

Chapter  217,  Laws  of  1915.— Xew  York  State  Apple  Grading 
Law. 


HISTORY  OF  FRUIT  EXHIBITS  AT  STATE  FAIR 
H.  E.  KNAPP 

Assistant  Extension  Professor,  Department  of  Pomology,  Cornell  University, 

Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

PIONEER    AND     ITINERANT     PERIOD     OF     THE     STATE     FAIR 

The  First  Animal  Fair  and  Cattle 
Show  of  the  2s  ew  York  State  Agricul- 
tural Society  was  held  at  Syracuse  in 
1841.  At  that  time  much  more  emphasis 
was  laid  upon  the  animal  husbandry  and 
dairy  branches  of  farming  than  upon  the 
production  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  vegeta- 
bles, because  of  the  greater  importance 
of  the  former  in  the  farming  industry  of 
the  state.  Some  space  was  devoted  from 
the  first,  however,  to  the  exhibition  of 
fruits,  interest  in  which  was  just  awaken- 
ing among  farmers  of  the  state.  As  this  interest  grew  and  the 
culture  of  fruit  assumed  the  position  of  a  great  commercial  in- 
dustry, proportionately  greater  attention  and  space  was  accorded 
the  fruit  grower  and  his  products  at  these  fairs. 

In  the  early  years  of  its  existence  the  fair  had  no  permanent 
home.  It  was  transferred  from  one  city  to  another  throughout  the 
entire  state,  among  these  being  Albany,  Saratoga,  Utica,  Elmira, 
Rochester,  Buffalo,  Auburn,  Watertown,  and  Syracuse.  This, 
of  course,  meant  that  no  durable  structures  could  be  erected  in 
which  the  exhibition  might  be  staged.  As  a  result,  the  earlier 
records  of  the  Fair  are  replete  with  descriptions  of  "  floral  halls  " 
and  "  horticultural  halls  "  hastily  constructed  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  occasion,  but  beautifully  adorned,  according  to  these 
reports,  with  flowers,  plants,  and  vines  appropriate  to  the  nature 
of  the  products  on  exhibition  within  them. 

[G94] 


HI>TOKY  OF  FKUT  EXHIWTS  AT  STATE  FAIK 


(51)5 


(I'M) 


THE  FuriT   LXDI  STRY  i.\   NEW   YORK  STATE 


EARLY    PREMIUM    LISTS 

The  first  published  premium  list  for  fruits  appeared  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Fair  held  at  Utica  in  1845.  It  is  given  below  in  the 
original  form: 

TABLE  APPLES 

1ST  2ND  3RD 

For    the    greatest    variety    of    table 

apples     $5'.  00  $3 .  00     Vol.  Trans. 

TABLE  PEARS 
Greatest  variety  of  table  pears $3.  0,0     Vol.  Trans. 

WINTER  APPLES 
Greatest  variety  of  winter  apples.  .  .      Vol.  Trans. 


APPLES 
Best  twelve  varieties  table  apples.  .  . 


.$3.00 


Best  twelve  quinces. 


QUINCES 

Vol.  Trans. 


Vol.  Trans, 


Best    twenty-four    plums 


PLUMS 

Vol.  Trans. 


GRAPES 

Best  six  bunches  native  grapes Vol.  Trans. 

Best  six  bunches  foreign  grapes Vol.  Trans. 

From-  such  a  beginning  the  fruit  exhibit  'has  grown  until  it 
now  embraces  nearly  270  classes  with,  annual  awards  of  over 
$4,000.  In  the  forties  and  fifties  popular  premiums  were:  a 
volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society,  the  Diploma  of  the 
Society,  and  a  copy  of  Downing's  "  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  in 
America."  Xames  often  appearing  in  the  early  records  were* 
those  of  David  Thomas  and  J.  J.  Thomas,  Ellwanger  and  Barry, 
William  Kenrick  (who  brought  collections  of  fruit  from  his  Massa- 
chusetts home),  Lincoln  Fay,  Charles  Downing,,  and  A.  J.  Down- 
ing. Many  of  these  men  established  an  enduring  place  for  them- 
selves in  American  pomology.  The  beginnings  of  our  fruit 
industry  were  in  able  hands. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  watermelons  and  muskmelons  were 
listed  and  awarded  premiums  under  the  headings  of  fruits  for 
a  considerable  period. 


HISTOIIY  OF  Furrr  EXHIBITS  AT  STATK   FAII: 


697 


Separate  lists  and  awards  for  professional  and  amateur  fruit 
growers  were  maintained,  though  the  basis  of  distinction  betuecn 
the  two  was  not  made  clear.  Kmphasis  was  laid  upon  collections 
of  the  different  fruits  without  reference  to  varieties  rather  than 
upon  single  plates  of  the  different  kinds.  Apples,  pears,  and 
grapes  were  most  prominent  in  these  premium  lists.  Premiums 
were  also  offered  for  seedling  fruits,  but  the  judges  possessed 
sntlicient  courage  to  withhold  awards  in  many  cases  on  the 


FIG.  175. —  THE  GRANGE  EXHIBIT  THAT  WON  FIRST  PRIZE  IN  1912 

grounds  of  lack  of  merit.  Xo  variety  names  were  mentioned 
until  1876,  when  Ellwanger  and  Barry  received  a  prize  of  $2.00 
for  a  plate  of  " Apple  or  Orange  quinces."  In  1877  a  new  sec- 
tion entitled,  "  Single  Dishes,  Open  to  All,"  was  added  and  a 
prize  of  $2.00  was  given  for  plates,  or  dishes,  of  the  following 
varieties  of  apples,  pears,  and  grapes:  Baldwin,  King  of  Tomp- 
kins  County,  Northern  Spy,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Roxbnrv 
Russet,  Twenty  Ounce,  Esopus  Spitzenburg,  Red  Canada ;  Bart- 
lett,  Beurre  d'Anjou,  Beurre  Clairgeau,  Beurre  Bosc,  Duchesse 


698  THE  FKUJT  IS'DUSTKY  ix   XEW  YOKK  STATK 


HISTOUY  OK   FKTIT   FXIIIIHTS  AT  STATK   FAII;  699 


Doyenne  Boussock,  Flemish  Meanly,  Seckel,  Shel- 
dtni,  Lawrence,  Winter  Xelis;  (  'onronl,  Catawba,  Delaware. 
I  la  it  ford,  Isabella,  and  any  of  Rogers'  varieties.  Twelve  speci- 
mens of  apples  and  pears  and  six  bunches  of  grapes  constituted 
a  dish. 

TIIK    STATK    FAIR    IX     A    I'  KK  M  A  X  K  XT    HOME 

The  first  fair  that  was  held  upon  the  present  grounds  at  Syra- 
cuse  occurred  in  INJK).  There  were  not  sufficient  buildings  to 
accommodate  all  the  exhibits  of  farm  and  garden,  and  during 
.  1MM,  and  1892  the  fruit  was  displayed  in  tents,  leased 


Fro.  177. —  THE  FIRST  PRIZE  PLATE  OF  BARTLETT  PEARS  IN  1911 

and  erected  for  the  purpose.      The  Executive  Board  made  the 
following  report  of  the  display  in  1891: 

"An  especial  effort  was  made  to  secure  a  large  exhibit  of 
fruit,  and  so  successful  was  the  effort  that  the  officers  in  charge 
were  overwhelmed  by  the  largest  and  greatest  show  of  fruit 
probably  ever  made  in  the  United  States.  The  need  of  a  per- 
manent building  in  which  to  place  the  fruit  on  exhibition  was 
sorely  felt,  and  the  expense  of  this  department  in  leasing  tents. 


700 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


erecting  platforms,  etc.,  undoubtedly  cost  the  society  four-fold 
more  than  would  have  resulted  from  the  interest  on  a  sum 
necessary  to  pay  for  the  structure." 

In  1892,  on  the  night  of  September  13,  a  violent  storm  blew 
down  nearly  every  tent  on  the  grounds  and  practically  destroyed 
the  exhibit  of  fruit  and  flowers. 

The  following  year,  1893,  the  legislature  appropriated  a  build- 
ing fund  sufficient  to  erect,  among  other  structures,  the  horti- 


'91? 


\ORK 


I9T7 


FIG.  ITS. —  THE  FIRST  PRIZE  PLATE  OF  ELBEKTA  PEACHES  IN   1911 

cultural  hall,  familiar  to  present  day  fair-goers.  But  the  time 
was  to  come  when  Horticultural  Hall,  once  so  spacious  and  ade- 
quate, would  fail  to  care  for  the  ever  increasing  quantity  of 
fruits  from  the  growers  of  the  state.  In  1915  the  fruit  exhibit 
was  transferred  from  its  former  home  to  the  north  end  of  the 
Manufacturers'  Building.  The  floral  exhibit  was  also  transferred 
to  the  same  place,  but  the  change  did  not  prove  altogether  satis- 
factory, owing  to  lack  of  space  in  which  to  display  these  products 
to  advantage.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  horticulture  may  soon  have 


EiSTORT  <)i-    Fin -IT  Kx  ii  1 1  JITS  AT  STATE 


702  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW  YORK  STATE 

a  home  on  the  fair  grounds  that  is  worthy  of  the  position  it  holds 
in  the  farming  industry  of  the  Empire  State. 

COLLECTIVE     KXIIIBTTS 

From  the  year  1890  the  importance  of  the  fruit  exhibit  has 
grown  with  leaps  and  bounds  in  quantity,  quality,  and  the  variety 
and  amount  of  premiums  offered.  In  1891  a  class  was  included 
for  the  first  time  for  "the  largest  and  best  collection  of  all  fruits 
especially  designed  for  family  purposes,  collected  and  exhibited 
by  any  society  or  organization  which  has  been  in  existence  for  at 
least  one  year."  The  Central  New  York  Horticultural  Society 
received  first  prize  of  $200,  the  Western  New  York  Horticul- 
tural Society  received  $100,  or  second  prize,  and  a  special  award 
of  $50  was  made  to  the  Orange  County  Agricultural  Society  in 
view  of  the  excellence  of  its  exhibit.  Similar  premiums  were 
offered  for  collections  especially  designed  for  market  purposes. 
In  1892  the  conditions  were  changed  to  some  extent,  and  premi- 
ums were  awarded  for  the  largest  and  best  collection  of  fruit 
grown  in  the  state  of  New  York,  collected  and  exhibited  by  any 
society  or  organization  which  had  been  in  existence  at  least  one 
year,  without  reference  to  any  special  purpose  or  use  to  which 
the  fruit  might  be  devoted. 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  exhibits  by  the  state  horticul- 
tural societies  have  given  place  to  displays  by  counties,  for  which 
premiums  of  $250,  $200,  and  $150  are  awarded  for  first,  second, 
and  third  places.  Ontario,  Orleans,  and  Oswego  counties  have 
been  represented  by  such  exhibits  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
in  1915  the  counties  of  Ulster  and  Niagara  entered  the  lists,  the 
former  carrying  off  first  prize.  Grange  exhibits  have  also  been 
gradually  assuming  a  more  important  place.  Probably  the  great- 
est departure  from  the  custom  of  early  years  has  been  the  forma- 
tion of  classes  for  fruit  packed  in  the  form  in  which  it  appears 
upon  the  market.  Packed  barrels  of  apples,  boxes  of  both  apples 
and  pears,  carriers  of  peaches,  and  parcel  post  packages  of  all 
kinds  of  fruit  are  shown  in  ever  increasing  numbers. 

EDUCATIONAL   EXHIBITS    BY  THE    STATE   EXPERIMENT    STATION 

The  exhibit  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  at  Geneva,  received  special  commendation  at  the  hands 


HISTOKY  OF   FKTIT   KXHIIUTS  AT  STATK   KAIK 


703 


of  the  judge,  J.  S.  Woodward,  in  1893.  It  consisted  of  the 
following  number  of  varieties:  apple,  102;  pear,  24;  plum,  34; 
peach,  21;  quince,  4;  grapes,  125.  The  splendid  display  made 
by  this  institution  has  never  ceased  to  attract  attention  in  recent 
years,  and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  this  forms  the  most  pleas- 
ing single  feature  in  the  exhibit  room. 

PROMINENCE    OF    SINGLE    PLATE    EXHIBITS 

In    181)4,    1133    entries     of   fruit    were   made.      Plums    were 
admitted  to  the  single  plate  classes  in  1895,  and  peaches  soon 


FIG.  180. —  THE  ULSTER  COUNTY  EXHIBIT  —  WINNER  OF  FIRST  PRIZE  IN  1915 

followed.  At  present  the  single  plate  entries  made  by  growers 
all  over  the  state  receive  more  prominence  than  large  collections 
exhibited  by  a  few  men.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  since  it  offers 
the  greatest  encouragement  to  the  greatest  number  and  gives 
the  small  grower,  as  well  as  the  large  one,  a  chance. 


704 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  i.\  -Xiow  YORK  STATE 


HISTORY  OF   Furrr   FXIIIIUTS  AT  STATK   FAIR  705 

K.XII  ii;rrs    uv    vor.\(,    IM-:<U»LK 

Lastly,  the  hoys  and  "-iris,  the  future  fruit  growers  and  farmers 
of  the  state,  have  not  been  neglected.  A  special  section  is  pro- 
vided for  them,  in  which  they  can  contest  their  skill  in  selecting 
and  arranging  collections  of  orchard  products.  It  is  probable 
that  no  expenditure  by  the  Fair  Commission  is  made  for  a  more 
worthy  purpose,  or  returns  in  the  long  run  a  larger  measure  of 
interest  and  value,  than  this  outlay  for  the  rural  schools  and  their 
boys  and  girls. 

VALUE  TO  THE  STATE 

it  is  difficult  to  estimate  in  concrete  terms  what  all  this  means 
to  the  state.  Xew  York  fruit  growers  have  never  been  prone  to 
do  much  talking  about  themselves  or  to  boom  the  industry  in 
which  they  are  engaged.  The  exhibit  at  the  State  Fair  serves  in 
a  modest  way  to  remind  the  general  public  that  this  state  possesses 
a  fruit  industry  that  is  worthy  of  her  reputation  and  achievement. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  the  exhibit  is  worth  while  to  the 
fruit  growers  themselves  in  many  ways.  The  exhibit  at  the 
fair  has  become  an  accurate  reflection  of  fruit-growing  conditions 
in  the  state  at  large.  With  the  possibility  of  a  new  and  better 
building  before  us,  with  the  prospect  of  fairer  methods  of  pack- 
ing and  saner  methods  of  marketing,  both  the  exhibit  at  the  fair 
and  the  industry  in  the  state  face  a  future  full  of  promise. 


HORTICULTURAL     EXHIBITS     AND      WHAT     THEY 

MEAN  TO  THE  FRUIT  INTERESTS  OF  THE 

STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

EXHIBIT  OF  NEW  YORK  FRUIT    AT  THE  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION 

EDWARD  VAX  ALSTYNE 
Director  of  Farmers'  Institutes 

The  first  world-wide  exhibit  of  New 
York's  fruits  was  made  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893.  It  occu- 
pied 200,000  square  feet  in  the  Horticul- 
tural Building.  The  exhibit  was  divided 
into  three  parts  —  Floriculture,  Pomology 
and  Viticulture.  In  this  connection  we 
are  concerned  with  the  two  last. 

The  pomological  exhibit  showed  all  the 
fruit  of  the  state,  and  was  in  charge  of 
Mr.  Geo.  T.  Powell,  of  Ghent,  Columbia 
County,  he  being  at  that  time  Director  of 

Farmers'  Institutes.  Nearly  3,000  square  feet  was  occupied  by 
this  exhibit.  From  the  opening  of  the  exposition  until  its  close 
the  space  was  well  filled  with  the  various  fruits  of  the  state,  a 
considerable  quantity  having  been  put  in  cold  storage  the  previous 
fall.  On  May  11  there  were  before  the  judges  101  varieties  of 
apples  and  five  of  pears.  From  the  ripening  of  the  first  straw- 
berries there  was  a  continual  supply  of  fresh  fruits  direct  from 
the  growers.  For  the  first  time  a  demonstration  was  made  to  the 
world  that,  with  the  exception  of  citrus  fruits,  New  York  produced 
more  fruit  than  all  the  other  states  put  together. 

The  viticulture!  exhibit  was  in  charge  of  Mr.  Geo.  C.  Snow 
of  Penn  Yan,  Yates  County.  This  contained  all  the  wine  pro- 
ducts of  the  grape,  the  fruit  being  shown  with  the  pomological 
exhibit.  Beginning  with  grapes  held  in  cold  storage,  there  were 
Catawbas,  Dianas  and  Isabellas  on  the  tables  from  May  1  to 
November  1.  The  first  of  the  crop  of  1893  began  to  arrive  August 
15,  being  Champions  from  the  vineyards  of  Mr.  W.  D.  Barnes 
of  Middle  Hope,  Orange  County. 

[706] 


HOBTICUI/TURAL   EXHIBITS  AND   WHAT    TIIKY    MKAN      707 

This  display  was  a  levelation  to  thousands  who  had  little  idea 
of  the  extent  and  excellence  of  New  York's  vineyard  products  or 
the  money  value  of  the  grape  crop  of  our  state,  which  is  greater 
than  that  of  California.  There  was  also  an  exhibit  showing  the 
best  methods  of  handling  and  trimming  the  crop.  The  viti- 
cultural  exhibition  received  22  awards. 

In  the  dome  of  the  Horticultural  Building,  Dr.  Charles  H.  Peck, 
State  Botanist,  showed  the  edible  fungi  of  the  state,  in  a  space 
occupying  240  feet. 

NEW  YORK  FRUIT  AT  THE  PAN-AMERICAN  EXPOSITION  IN   1901 

F.    K.    DAWLKV,   FAYETTEVILLE,   X.   Y., 
Assistant  Superintendent  of  Fruit  Exhibit  at  Buffalo 

One  of  the  most  complete  and  the  largest 
exhibition  of  New  York  state  fruits  and 
fruit  products  that  has  ever  been  brought 
together  was  made  at  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  in  1901. 

The  apple  crop  of  1900  was  one  of  the 
finest  ever  grown  in  the  state,  and,  through 
having  a  very  wide  acquaintance  among 
both  professional  and  amateur  apple  grow- 
ers, the  superintendents  were  able  to  secure 
a  large  collection  of  apples  of  remarkable 
quality  for  the  exhibit  of  cold  storage  fruit. 
The  exhibit  was  made  to  demonstrate  not  only  that  New  York 
could  grow  the  finest  fruits,  but  to  show  that  some  localities  are 
better  adapted  to  growing  certain  varieties ;  and,  while  this  adapta- 
tion is  marked  in  most  sorts,  the  display  of  sixty-one  plates  of 
Baldwins  from  each  county  and  New  York  City,  which  was  kept 
up  throughout  the  exposition,  was  the  leading  feature  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  exhibit. 

A  careful  record  was  made  of  the  number  of  apples  of  each 
variety  placed  in  cold  storage,  and  an  accurate  account  kept  of 
the  condition  of  each  of  the  specimens  taken  out.  This  gave  some 
very  interesting  and  valuable  data  as  to  the  comparative  keep- 
ing quality  of  the  different  varieties,  also  information  as  to  the 
effect  of  early  and  late  picking  and  some  information  of  value 
regarding  keeping  quality  in  different  localities. 


708  THE  Fin  IT  INDTSTUY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

The  exhibit  of  cold  storage  apples  grown  in  1900  was  placed 
on  the  table,  May  '20.  It  comprised  over  4,000  plates  and  o-ty 
varieties,  and  not  one  of  the  20,000  apples  had  on  it  a  blemish  of 
any  kind. 

On  the  same  date  twenty-one  varieties  of  pears,  seven  of  quinces, 
and  five  of  grapes  were  staged.  The  commissioner  would  not 
allow  the  superintendents  to  spend  any  money  for  grapes  for  an 
exhibit  of  fruit  grown  in  1900,  and  the  few  baskets  of  these  five 
varieties  were  put  in  at  the  expense  of  the  superintendents.  Only 
100  pounds  were  put  in  cold  storage,  and  96  pounds  were  shown 
from  May  20  to  July  10.  The  Catawbas  on  the  plates  on  July  -1 
were  in  good  condition,  and  we  were  offered  thirty  cents  per 
pound  for  them. 

Two  gold  medals  and  two  silver  medals  were  awarded  the 
state  on  these  exhibits,  and  a  dozen  gold,  silver  and  bronze  medals 
were  awarded  to  individuals  who  grew  the  fruit. 

The  fruit  of  1901  was  a  revelation  to  every  one,  and  easily 
placed  Xew  York  at  the  head  —  especially  as  a  grower  of  apples. 
No  other  state  showed  so  many  specimens  nor  so  many  varieties, 
and  none  could  compare  in  quality.  We  were  the  first  state  to 
place  apples  on  the  tables,  ripe  fruit  being  shown  on  June  12. 

The  fruit  Ceriman  Monstera  Deliciosa  was  also  from  Xewr 
York,  being  grown  under  glass  at  Cornell  University. 

On  strawberries  the  state  received  a  gold  medal;  the  exhibit 
was  continuous  from  June  23  to  October  31.  We  displayed  over 
one  hundred  and  eighty  varieties,  from  163  different  exhibitors. 
On  June  29  we  had  more  than  seven  hundred  plates  of  gigantic 
Marshalls  on  exhibition,  also  twelve  hundred  plates  of  167  other 
varieties. 

The  exhibit,  of  bush  fruits  was  very  complete,  and  the  state 
received  a  gold  medal  for  this  display.  One  day  there  were  dis- 
played 139  varieties  of  gooseberries. 

The  length  of  the  season  for  currants  was  demonstrated  by 
showing  some  sixty  varieties  over  a  period  of  forty-three  days. 

The  raspberry  show  lasted  from  July  3  to  August  22.  Black- 
berries, whortleberries  and  dewberries  helped  to  demonstrate  the 
supremacy  of  the  state  as  a  section  for  the  production  of  small 
f raits.  Fourteen  varieties  of  apricots  and  four  of  nectarines  were 
shown. 


i/rrKAi.    Kxmnrrs  A.XD   WHAT    TIIKY    Mi-:  AN      709 


On  plums,  peaches.,  and  grapes,  no  state  came  anywhere  near 
meeting  Xew  York.  On  grapes  we  exhibited  four  times  as  many 
varieties  as  any  other  state,  and  received  more  medals  and  pri/es 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  states  together.  The  largest  and  heaviest 
cluster  of  grapes  at  the  exposition,  weighing  8  pounds  9  ounces, 
was  grown  in  New  York  State  and  beat  the  California  cluster 
by  nearly  two  pounds  in  weight. 

Among  the  features  of  the  exposition  which  were  largely  com- 
mented on  by  the  daily  press  were  the  fruit  pictures  and  panels 
done  in  fresh  fruit,  designed  by  the  writer  and  executed  by  Julius 
Heinrich.  These  were  continued  throughout  the  exposition,  and 
were  complimented  by  thousands.  On  this  display  the  state  of 
New  York  won  thirteen  gold  medals,  three  silver  medals,  and  one 
bronze  medal.  Thirty-six  gold  medals  were  awarded  to  the  ex- 
hibitors, giving  New  York  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  gold  medals 
awarded  in  the  horticultural  department.  Forty-six  silver  medals 
were  also  awarded  to  exhibitors,  and  over  four  hundred  other 
awards  were  made. 

Reference  to  this  exhibit  would  not  be  complete  without  say- 
ing something  of  the  work  done  by  the  late  S.  L).  Willard,  of 
Geneva,  who  gave  his  sendees  as  superintendent  without  remu- 
neration. His  keen  interest  in  demonstrating  -the  state's  horti- 
cultural supremacy,  his  wide  acquaintance  among  fruit  growers, 
and  his  personal  popularity  made  the  work  light  for  those  who 
were  associated  with  him. 


Tin  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


NEW   YORK   FRUIT    AT   THE    LAND    SHOWS    AND    AT    THE    SAN 
FRANCISCO  EXPOSITION 

CHARLES  G.  PORTER,  ALBION,  X.  Y., 

In  Charge  of  New  York  Horticultural  Exhibits  at  Land  Shows  and  at  San 
Francisco  Exposition 

NEW   YORK   LAND   SHOWS 

At  the  Land  Show  in  Madison  Square 
Garden,  in  November,  1911,  an  exhibit  of 
fruit  from  the  state  of  New  York  was  in- 
stalled. It  consisted  of  packed  boxes  of 
apples,  as  also  full  packed  barrels  and  sec- 
tions of  packed  barrels.  The  exhibits  also 
contained  pears,  peaches,  canned  fruit  and 
various  fruit  productions. 

Erom  November  11  to  December  4, 
1912,  the  second  state  exhibit  of  fruit  was 
shown  at  a  New  York  Land  Show.  At 
this  exhibition,  apples  and  pears  were 

shown.  Since,  after  the  show  was  decided  upon,  there  was  less  than 
two  weeks'  time  in  which  to  collect  and  install  the  fruit,  it  was 
colle  cted  from  orchards  and  barns  where  the  fruit  had  been  packed 
for  market  and  was  therefore  not  selected  for  exhibition  purposes. 
This  was  an  excellent  feature  of  this  exhibit :  for,  notwithstanding 
all  that  has  been  said  about  the  farmer's  poor  pack,  one  was  able  to 
go  to  various  farms  and  select  boxes  and  barrels  of  apples  that  had 
been  packed  in  the  regular  way  and  which  went  to  make  up  a 
large  and  attractive  exhibit  of  New  York  State  fruit.  As  this 
was  an  exhibit  of  two  hundred  packed  barrels,  massed  in  a  bunch 
on  such  an  angle  as  to  show  the  entire  face  end  of  each  barrel, 
and  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  full  packed  boxes  installed  upon 
a  rack  five  boxes  high  and  so  arranged  as  to  make  a  background 
for  the  barrels,  it  made  a  very  attractive  exhibit. 

There  were  hundreds  of  children  and  many  grown  people - 
consumers  of  fruit  —  who  looked  for  the  first  time  upon  a  full 
barrel  of  apples,  and  who  for  the  first  time  learned  that  apples 
grown  in  the  state  of  New  York  were  marketed  in  barrels  and 
not  in  half -pecks.     From  this   exhibit,   apples   and   pears  were 


HORTICULTURAL    Kxmr.rrs  A.\J>  WHAT   TIIKY   MKAN     711 

handed  out  to  the  visitors,  who  could  taste  and  judge  for  them- 
selves the  superior  quality  and  flavor  of  New  York  apples. 

CHICAGO    LAND    SHOW 

At  the  rhicago  Land  Show,  held  November  20  to  December 
11,  IDltf,  the  state  showed  a  large  exhibit  of  apples.  The  installa- 
tion scheme  was  of  an  oblong  pyramid  with  most  of  the  fruit 
shown  in  box  flats  and  barrel  ends,  showing  how  boxes  should  be 
packed  and  how  barrels  should  be  faced  and  tailed  up  at  the  press 
end.  There  were  one  hundred  and  fifty  boxes  and  ninety  barrel 


FIG.  182. —  EXHIBIT  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE  APPLES  AT  THE  NEW  YORK  LAND 

SHOW,  1912 

ends ;  there  were  also  about  fifty  full  packed  barrels  and  one  hun- 
dred plates  —  thirty  varieties  in  all. 

The  fruit  was  grown  in  the  leading  fruit  counties  of  the  state, 
and  was  selected  so  as  to  give  a  fair  representation  of  the  fruit 
in  the  county  from  which  it  came.  There  was  no  desire  to  show 
overgrown  specimens  or  varieties  without  a  commercial  value. 
We  had  fine  color,  good  size  for  each  variety  shown,  and  uni- 
formity in  pack,  with  fruit  of  the  highest  quality  —  all  of  which 


1\-2  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

went  to  make  up  a  very  attractive  exhibit.  The  aroma  from  the 
New  York  fruit  so  completely  filled  with  its  delicious  fragrance 
that  portion  of  the  great  colosseum  in  which  it  was  staged  that 
many  people  asked  if  New  York  fruit  had  ever  been  shown  there 
before,  saying  that  it  was  the  first  time  such  fragrance  of  fruit 
was  ever  noticed  at  the  Land  Show. 

One  feature  of  this  exhibit  was  the  distribution  of  apples  to 
visitors,  and,  although  many  barrels  of  apples  were  handed  out 
in  this  manner,  the  one  thing  lacking  was  that  there  was  not 
enough  fruit  for  this  purpose.  Hundreds  of  people  visiting  the 
exhibit  did  not  know  that  New  Yrork  was  an  apple-growing  state, 
and  were  much  surprised  to  see  such  beautiful  fruit  from  other 
than  a  western  state.  It  was  hard  for  them  to  believe,  when  they 
read  from  a  placard  on  the  exhibit,  that  "  six  counties  in  the  state 
of  New  Yrork  produced  more  apples  than  all  the  states  except 
Pennsylvania." 

This  exhibit  showed  very  clearly  the  keeping  qualities  of  New 
York  fruit.  After  remaining  on  exhibition  for  three  weeks  the 
fruit  was  just  as  attractive  as  on  the  opening  day. 

THE  PANAMA  EXPOSITION 

To  arrange  for  and  install  an  exhibit  of  fruit  creditable  to 
the  great  fruit  interests  of  the  state  of  New  York,  three  thousand 
miles  away  from  home,  is  a  considerable  undertaking. 

In  selecting  the  fruit  for  this  exhibit,  the  same  care  was  used 
as  in  previous  exhibits  —  to  select  only  varieties  of  commercial 
value  and  from  various  fruit  counties  of  the  state.  As  the  exposi- 
tion was  not  open  until  February  20,  apples  only  could  be  shown 
at  the  opening.  It  was  necessary  to  have  a  cold  storage  and  packing 
house  centrally  located,  where  the  fruit  was  received.  At  this 
place  it  was  all  repacked  in  the  various  ways  in  which  it  was 
to  be  shown  and  then  returned  to  the  cold  storage  until  the 
time  necessary  to  load  it  for  San  Francisco.  There  were  twenty- 
five  varieties  selected  for  this  exhibit.  The  stock  consisted  of 
three  hundred  and  thirty-six  packed  box  flats  and  one  hundred 
and  thirty  barrels,  packed  with  various  varieties  to  be  shown 
in  different  ways.  There  were  also  fifty-two  dozen  of  the  finest 
canned  fruit  produced  in  the  state,  consisting  of  ten  varieties, 


HORTICULTUBAL     K.XIIIUITS    AM)    \YllAT     TlIKV     AI  KAN        713 

all  of  which  made  up  one  largo  refrigerator  car  load.  About 
three  weeks  from  the  time  of  shipment  it  arrived  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, when  the  fruit  was  again  placed  in  cold  storage,  where  it 
remained  until  the  exhibit  was  installed.  The  excess  was  left 
in  storage  to  be  drawn  upon  from  time  to  time  as  the  exhibit 
required. 

The  space  allotted  to  the  state  of  2sTew  York  in  the  Horticultural 
Palace,  was  40  x  ?U  feet.  The  booth  was  made  after  the  style 
of  a  colonial  pergola,  having  large  columns,  with  massive  beams 
and  crossbeams  and  large  scroll  lattices  at  either  end,  artificial 
grapevines  running  up  and  covering  the  crossbeams  with  their 


Kic.  1S:J.—  KXIIIBIT  OF  XKW  YORK  APPLES  AT  THE  CHICAGO  LAND  SHOW,  1913 

autumn-tinted  foliage,  fruited  with  variously  colored  bunches 
of  fruit.  Diagonally  across  each  end  of  the  space,  and  meeting 
on  either  side  of  a  mirrored  door  in -the  back,  there  were  built 
two  refrigerator  cases,  each  being  twenty  feet  long  and  thirteen 
feet  high,  with  panelled  glass  fronts  seven  feet  high,  the  color 
scheme  of  the  entire  booth  and  cases  being  cream  and  apple  green. 
Tn  each  case  there  were  placed  eleven  hidden  40-watt  electric 
lamps,  which  threw  a  beautiful  soft  light  upon  the  fruit. 

Tn  one  case  sixty-eight  boxes  of  apples  were  shown,  making 
seventeen  rows  four  boxes  high.  In  the  other  there  were  forty 
barrel  ends,  some  showing  face  ends  and  others  showing  the  tail 


714: 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ]STEw  YORK  STATE 


HORTICULTURAL   EXHIBITS  AND  WHAT   THKY    MKAN     715 

or  press  end  of  the  barrel.  These  were  piled  four  barrels  high 
MI  id  represented  Xew  York  standard  pack.  There  were  a  num- 
ber of  varieties  and  colors  in  each  case,  so  arranged  as  to  make 
the  exhibit  attractive,  with  a  row  of  fancy  baskets  filled  with  the 
choicest  fruit  of  the  exhibit  placed  upon  the  floor  of  each  case 
in  front  of  the  boxes  and  barrels.  With  the  soft  glow  of  the 
electric  lights,  the  Xew  York  exhibit  of  fruit  was  always  a  beauti- 
ful picture,  which  attracted  much  attention. 

This  exhibit  stood  practically  without  change  until  the  second 
week  in  .May,  when  some  changes  were  made,  but  still  leaving 
twenty-two  varieties  in  the  exhibit.  September  6  there  were 
sixteen  varieties  of  the  1914  fruit  on  exhibit,  including  Ilhode 
Island  (JmMiing,  Pumpkin  Sweet,  Hubbardston,  and  Mcliitosh. 
At  this  time  there  were  some  varieties  of  1915  fruit,  and  with 
other  varieties  following  as  fast  as  matured,  the  exhibit  was  all 
changed  to  the  fruit  of  1915. 

If  space  would  only  allow,  how  very  interesting  it  would  be  to 
quote  the  remarks -of  visitors  written  in  the  large  register  at  the 
exhibit,  where  hundreds  registered  every  day! 

Xearly  every  day  until  May  15,  Xew  York  State  apples  were 
distributed  to  visitors.  People  from  all  states,  and  many  foreign- 
ers, had  the  pleasure  for  the  first  time  of  tasting  a  rich,  juicy, 
well-flavored  Xew  York  apple.  Visitors  were  much  surprised  to 
learn  that  Xew  York  was  an  apple-growing  state,  that  it  grew 
such  beautiful  fruit,  and  that  its  1914  crop  was  fifty  million 
bushels,  about  one-fifth  of  the  entire  production. 

Dealers  in  fruit,  from  various  states  and  foreign  countries, 
were  among  our  most  interested  visitors,  always  expressing  a  de- 
sire for  Xew  York  fruit  and  information  concerning  it.  Con- 
sumers would  frequently  visit  the  exhibit  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing fruit  by  the  box  or  barrel,  and  would  show  much  dis- 
appointment when  told  that  such  could  not  be  done. 

In  a  brief  word  of  conclusion  I  wish  to  add  that  with  the  wide 
range  of  advertising  by  these  exhibits,  placed  before  thousand  of 
consumers  from  all  over  the  world  who  for  the  first  time  saw  or 
tasted  a  Xew  York  apple,  their  value  to  the  fruit  interests  of  the 
state  of  Xew  York  is  immeasurable. 


716  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

XOTE. —  The  following  telegram  was  received  from  Mr.  Porter 
on  November  23: 

EXPOSITION  GROUNDS, 
SAX  FRANCISCO,  CAL.?  Xovember  '23,  1915 
HON.  CHARLES  S.  WILSOX,  Albany,  X.  Y. : 

The  state  of  Xew  York  exhibit  of  fruit  at  the  Panama-Pacific 
International  Exposition  at  San  Francisco  has  just  been  awarded 
Grand  Prize,  also  thirteen  gold  medals,  fifteen  silver  medals, 
eleven  bronze  medals  and  twelve  honorable  mention  medals. 

CHARLES  G.  PORTER. 


THE  WESTERN   NEW  YORK   HORTICULTURAL 

SOCIETY 

JOHN  HALL 

Secretary  of  the  Society,  Rochester,  X.   V. 

The  first  record  we  have  of  the  organ- 
ization  of  fruit  growers   in   the  Empire 
Slate  is  that  of  the  Fruit  Growers'   So- 
ciety of  Western  New  York,  in  1855.     It 
cume  upon  the  scene  at  a  time  when  the 
New    World    was    beginning    to    witness 
numerous  demonstrations  of  the  inventive 
genius   of  man.      The   successful   use   of 
illuminating  gas  in  this  country  had  been 
practiced  for  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury ;  travel  by  steam  railroad  had  not  be- 
come a  fact  until  about  the  same  period; 
and  not  until   1844  was  the  first  public 
telegraph  in  this  country  completed. 
In  1870,  the  Fruit  Growers'   Society  of  Western  New   York 
changed  its  name  to   "  The  Western   New   York  Horticultural 
Society."     Six  years  later  Alexander  Graham  Bell  discovered  the 
principle  which  culminated  in  the  invention  of  the  telephone,  and 
still  several  years  later  followed  the  general  commercial  introduc- 
tion and  development  of  electric  lighting. 

Agricultural  experiment  stations  and  agricultural  colleges  were 
not  known  in  the  United  States  until  about  twenty  years  after 
the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society  was  born.  The 
first  experiment  station  we  read  of  was  established  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  in  1875,  and  our  own  New  York  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  became  a  fact  in  1882,  seven  years  before  the 
writer  of  this  article  became  the  secretary-treasurer  of  the  organi- 
zation of  which  this  article  is  the  subject. 

The  history  of  the  old  Western  New  Yrork  Horticultural  So- 
ciety would  make  intensely  interesting  reading  if  published  in 
detail.  This,  however,  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  here.  The 
wonderful  progress  made  in  the  development  of  fruit  growing  in 

[717] 


718  THE  FECIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  185. —  W.  C.  BARRY,  PRESIDENT, 
WESTERN  NEW  YORK  HORTICULTURAL 
SOCIETY,  1915-16 


WESTKK.N    \i-.\v   YORK   IlouTicfi/rriiAL  SOCIETY          719 

this  state,  and  the  enviable  place  the  society  occupies  today  among 
.similar  organizations,  agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  col- 
leges of  agriculture  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  constitute 
the  highest  testimonial  to  the  sixty  years  of  intelligent  and  suc- 
cessful effort  consecrated  to  the  cause  which  it  has  long  repre- 
sented and  still  represents. 

The  circular  letter  which  called  into  existence  the  institution  of 
which  we  write  read  as  follows: 

A  Pomological  Society  for  Western  New  York 

A  meeting  of  the  fruit  growers  and  nurserymen  of  Western  New  York  will 
be  held  at  the  Court  House  in  the  city  of  Rochester,  on  Tuesday,  February 
27,  1855,  at  two  o'clock  p.  M.,  for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  pomological 
society  to  embrace  all  the  counties  lying  west  of  and  including  Onondaga. 

The  culture  of  fruits  in  this  region  is  becoming  an  important  branch  of 
industry,  and  the  projected  society  cannot  fail  to  exert  a  powerful  influence 
in  advancing  its  interests. 

At  that  meeting  an  organization  was  effected,  constitution  and 
by-laws  adopted,  and  the  following  gentlemen  paid  their  dues  and 
were  enrolled  as  charter  members : 

Patrick  Barry,  George  Ellwanger,  D.  D.  T.  Moore,  H.  E. 
Hooker,  0.  T.  Cherry,  G.  H.  Cherry,  James  Vick,  Jr.,  Joseph 
Frost,  Ira  Belden  and  Moses  Long,  Rochester;  John  B.  Eaton 
and  William  R.  Coppock,  Buffalo;  William  P.  Townsend  and 
Claudius  L.  Hoag,  Lockport;  C.  I.  Ryan  and  Robert  Donellan, 
Greece ;  John  J.  Thomas,  Macedon ;  Zerah  Burr,  Perinton ;  H.  P. 
Norton,  Brockport;  Austin  Pinney,  Clarkson;  Philip  R.  Freeoff, 
Auburn. 

Shortly  after  the  launching  of  the  society  the  late  celebrated 
Charles  Downing  became  a  member  and  an  ardent  supporter. 

The  first  officers  elected  were:  President,  John  J.  Thomas, 
Macedon.  Vice-Presidents,  Lewis  F.  Allen,  Buffalo;  H.  P.  Nor- 
ton, Brockport;  E.  W.  Leavenworth,  Syracuse.  Secretary,  John 
B.  Eaton,  Buffalo.  Treasurer,  William  P.  Townsend,  Lockport. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  earnestness  and  enthusiasm  of  these 
pioneer  fruit  growers,  we  quote  from  the  record  of  1855  a  few 
of  the  entries  in  the  fruit  exhibit  at  that  meeting: 

Lewis  F.  Allen  —  26  varieties  apples,  13  of  pears,  7  of  plums. 
Wm.  R.  Coppock  —  29  varieties  pears,  5  of  apples. 


FIG.   186.— PIONEER  MEMBERS  OF  THE  WESTERN  NEW  YORK  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY 


FIG.   186. —  (Continued) 


JOSEPH  HARRIS. 


FOSTER  UDELL. 


BENJ.    FISH.. 
FlG.  186.— (Continued) 


WKSTKU.X    Ni-.w    YOKK    HoETlCULTUKAL  SoClBTt 

Lewis  Eaton  —  29  varieties  pears  and  18  of  apples. 

Kllwaiiiier  k  Barry-     ir>(J  varieties  pears,  70  of  apples. 

Frost  iV  Co. —  39  varieties  pears. 

Claudius  L.  Hoag  —  29  varieties  pears  and  36  of  apples. 

11.  E.  Hooker  ta  Co. —  73  varieties  pears  and  33  of  apples. 

Hooker,  Farley  <fc  Co. —  22  varieties  pears  and  47  of  apples. 

Alanlcy  \-  Mason  —  89  varieties  pears  and  43  of  apples. 

Henry   P.  Norton — 33  varieties  pears. 

Penfield  \T  Burrill — 71  varieties  pears  and  30  of  apples. 

John  J.  Thomas — 36  varieties  apples. 

Win.  P.  Townsend  —  74  varieties  pears. 

Godfrey  Zimmerman  —  17  varieties  pear$  and  32  of  apples. 

The  writer  wishes  the  fruit  growers  of  today  would  show  simi- 
lar enthusiasm  and  generosity  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the  West- 
ern Xew  Yoik  Horticultural  Society. 

For  lack  of  space  we  here  condense  the  record  of  presidents  of 
the  Society:  1855-1857,  J.  J.  Thomas;  1858,  H.  P.  Norton; 
1859-1860,  Benjamin  Hodge;  1861,  Elisha  Moody;  1862-3, 
Hugh  T.  Brooks;  1864-5,  Patrick  Barry;  1866-7,  H.  E.  Hooker; 
1868,  W.  Brown  Smith;  1869,  James  Yick;  1870-1890,  Patrick 
Marry;  1891,  William  C.  Barry  (still  serving). 

From  1855  to  1874  the  secretaries  were:  C.  P.  Bissell,  John 
B.  Eaton,  James  Vick,  H.  G.  Warner,  Sam  P.  Wakelee,  Wm.  J. 
Fowler,  W.  P.  Bissell.  In  1874,  Platt  C.  Reynolds  was  elected 
and  served  till  1889  (fifteen  years),  his  successor  being  John 
Hall,  who  is  still  serving  (27  years). 

Patrick  Barry  sought  to  resign  the  presidency  in  1890,  but  the 
Society  re-elected  him,  the  late  S.  D.  Willard  declaring  that  "  so 
long  as  Patrick  Barry  is  able  to  write  the  words  t  Yours  truly,' 
he  must  be  continued  as  president/' 

At  the  1914  meeting  the  secretary  read  a  "  Brief  Sketch  of 
Twenty-Five  Years  of  Service,'1  from  which  we  make  several 
extracts : 

The  year  following  my  assuming  office  the  membership  numbered  210;  five 
years  later  it  was  439;  still  five  years  later  the  number  was  590;  in  another 
five  years  it  had  reached  672;  and  in  five  years  more,  the  year  1910,  the  total 
was  1,467.  *  *  * 

By  comparison  with  those  engaged  in  the  fruit-growing  industry  in  the 
early  history  of  this  society,  the  progressive  fruit  grower  of  today  is  scientific 


724  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN" NEW  YORK  STATE 

—  knows  his  business.  The  Geneva  Experiment  Station  and  the  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Ithaca  have  helped  him  to  solve  many  of  his  problems,  and 
the  annual  meetings  of  this  society  have  been  the  clearing  house  where  all  have 
met,  and,  by  discussion  and  illustration,  information  has  been  gained  to  the 
mutual  profit  of  both.  The  research  work  of  these  hives  of  industry  at  Geneva 
and  Ithaca  has  been  made  more  effective  because  of  the  close  intimacy  exist- 
ing between  them  and  this  society 

I  could  recount  incidents  from  the  records  of  tnis  organization  which,  in 
the  light  of  present  knowledge,  would  cause  a  smile.  Do  the  men  who  have 
fallen  heirs  to  so  goodly  a  heritage  think  that  the  pioneers  of  those  early  days, 
who  were  groping  after  light  upon  their  problems  in  orchard  management, 
were  old  fogies?  Nay,  nay;  they  were  men  of  large  patience,  unlimited  faith 
and  strong  determination;  and  men  should  be  thankful  to  live  in  this  day  and 
age  when  innumerable  avenues  of  helpfulness  invite  the  footsteps  and  brains, 
and  make  tasks  easier  and  efforts  more  successful  than  was  possible  to  our 
forebears.  Here,  again,  WTC  claim  credit  for  the  work  of  this  society. 

I  should  have  liked  to  review  the  progress  made  in  combating  insect  and 
fungus  diseases,  the  general  care  of  the  orchard,  and  the  advent  and  wide- 
spread use  of  the  spraying  machine,  etc.,  but  time  forbids. 

During  my  term  of  office  two  of  the  society's  greatest  benefactors  have 
crossed  the  river,  but  have  perpetuated  their  names  and  their  interest  in  our 
work.  We  have  the  Barry  donation  of  $2,000,  from  the  interest  of  which  the 
Barry  gold  medal  is  to  be  awarded  to  the  originator  of  a  new  fruit  or  orna- 
mental tree,  shrub,  flowering  plant  or  vegetable;  and  we  have  the  George 
Ellwanger  donation  of  $1,000,  from  the  interest  of  which  are  to  be  paid  cash 
prizes  for  the  best-maintained  private  place,  and  for  the  best-maintained  pri- 
vate collection  of  large  and  small  fruits.  The  outcome  of  these  donations 
was  the  raising  of  other  moneys  which  gave  a  permanent  fund  of  over  $4,000. 

During  the  years  that  prizes  were  offered  by  the  New  York  State  Agri- 
cultural Society  for  the  largest  and  best  collection  of  fruit  exhibited  at  the 
state  fair  by  organizations,  this  society  captured  nearly  $5,000  in  cash 
premiums.  *  *  * 

Now,  as  to  the  future.  Among  the  many  problems  yet  to  be  solved  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  better  transportation  facilities,  an  advance  in  which  has 
been  made,  locally,  during  the  past  year;  cooperation  in  its  broadest  sense; 
better  sorting  and  better  packing  by  both  grower  and  buyer,  and  such  a 
distribution  of  your  products  as  shall  make  possible  the  supplying  of  every 
man,  woman  and  child  in  the  land  with  the  delicious,  health-giving  fruits  of 
vine  and  tree  as  produced  in  this*  section  of  country,  which  has  been  so 
peculiarly  blessed  by  the  Creator  in  its  climate  and  soil  and  other  agencies 
which  make  it  possible  for  you  to  grow  fruit  that  is  not  surpassed  in  quality, 
and  much  of  it  in  color,  by  that  grown  in  any  other  section  of  the  United 
States. 

Some  of  our  oldest  members  have  been  removed  by  death:  Claudius  L. 
Hoag,  a  charter  member  of  the  society;  S.  D.  Willard,  C.  M.  Hooker,  and  D.  R. 
Pease;  also  one  of  our  youngest  life  members,  J.  Sumner  Allis,  son  of 
Mr.  Clark  Allis,  whose  grandfather  was  a  member  of  this  society. 


WESTERN»NEW  YORK  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY        725 


7-H)  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

The  prime  object  of  this  society,  as  expressed  in  its  constitu- 
tion, is  educational  —  the  promotion  of  the  advancement  of  the 
science  of  pomology  and  the  art  of  fruit  culture  generally,  and 
in  harmony  with  this  expressed  declaration  the  programs  pre- 
sented at  the  annual  meetings  have  always  been  prepared.  The 
best  horticultural  authorities  from  far  and  near  have  appeared 
upon  our  platform. 

This  society  was  the  first  in  the  country  to  encourage  the  ex- 
hibition at  its  annual  meetings  of  spray  nozzles  and  other  devices, 
and  subsequently  of  spraying  apparatus,  from  a  spray  syringe  to 
a  power  spraying  machine. 

The  officers  of  the  society  for  fhe  year  1915  are: 

President 
W.  C.  Barry 

V  ice-Presidents 

S.  J.  T.  Bush,  Morton  F.  H.  Lattin,  Albion 

George  T.  Powell,  Ghent  M.  E.  Ross,  Avon 

A.  L.  Whitbeck,  Sodus  Win.  H.  Roeper,  Wyoming 

Secretary-Treasurer 
John  Hall,  Rochester 

Executive  Committee 

B.  J.  Case,  Sodus  Geo.  W.  Dunn,  Webster 

J.   Corwin  Jacks,  Batavia  E.  W.   Catchpole,  ^sorth  Rose 

Samuel  Fraser,  Geneseo 

As  a  stimulus  to  members,  winter  exhibits  of  fruit  are  made 
at  the  annual  meetings,  some  hundreds  of  dollars  being  paid  in 
premiums. 

The  annual  membership  fee  is  $1 ;  that  for  a  life  member  is 
$10.  Either  entitles  the  member,  in  addition  to  participation  in 
the  meetings,  to  the  annual  report,  a  volume  of  more  than  200 
pages,  containing  all  the  addresses  and  discussions  at  the  annual 
meeting,  and  worth  many  times  a  dollar  as  a  book  of  reference. 
A  set  of  these  reports  mark  the  horticultural  progress  of  more 
than  half  a  century. 


THE  NEW   YORK   STATE   FRUIT  GROWERS* 
ASSOCIATION 

E.    C.    GlLLETT 
Secretary  of  the  Association,  Perm  Yan,  N.  Y. 

There  are  no  records  in  the  Secretary's 
office  concerning  the  organization  and  work 
of  this  association  for  the  first  two  years 
of  its  life.  The  first  record  is  of  the  an- 
nual meeting  held  at  Buffalo,  K.  Y.,  in 
Jjnmary,  1903. 

From  different  reports  since  that  time 
I  learn  that  the  association  was  organized 
two  years  previously,  or  on  February  28, 
1901.  A  preliminary  meeting  was  held 
in  Rochester  at  the  time  of  the  meeting  of 
the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  So- 
ciety. Over  a  hundred  men,  who  were  fruit  growers  and  who  felt 
that  their  interests  as  growers  would  be  better  served  by  an  or- 
ganization not  so  closely  connected  with  the  nursery  trade,  met  in 
a  hotel  and  organized  this  association. 

The  1902  meeting  was  held  in  Syracuse.  Mr.  L.  T.  Yeomans 
of  Walworth  was  elected  president.  Mr.  Yeomans  served  as 
president  two  years,  or  until  January,  1903,  when  T.  B.  Wilson, 
of  Hall,  was  chosen.  Mr.  Wilson  served  as  president  four  years, 
1903-4-5-6;  Mr.  J.  R.  Cornell,  of  Newburg,  served  in  1907-8; 
.Mr.  B.  J.  Case,  of  Sodus,  in  1909-10;  Mr.  Clark  Allis,  of 
Medina,  in  1911-12;  Mr.  L.  L.  Morrell,  of  Kinderhook,  in 
1913-14.  Mr.  Frank  Bradley,  of  Barker,  was  elected  last 
January  and  is  now  president. 

Mr.  F.  E.  Dawley,  of  Fayetteville,  served  as  secretary  until 
1904.  Mr.  W.  L.  McKay,  of  Geneva,  servedHwo  years,  1904-5. 
E.  C.  Gillett,  of  Penn  Yan,  was  elected  secretary  in  1906,  and 
has  served  continuously  since  that  time. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Darrow,  of  Geneva,  was  treasurer  until  1910,  when 
the  office  of  treasurer  was  combined  with  that  of  secretary. 

[727] 


728  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  OF  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Until  1910,  the  annual  meetings  were  held  in  different  sections 
of  the  state  —  Syracuse,  Buffalo,  Geneva,  Penn  Yan,  Lockport 
and  Medina.  Since  1910  the  meetings  have  all  been  held  in 
Kochester. 

The  constitution  gives  seven  definite  objects  which  the  asso- 
ciation should  aim  to  reach. 

1.  To  secure  and  disseminate  practical  and  scientific  informa- 
tion concerning  fruit  growing. 

2.  To  secure  legislation  which  may  be  advantageous  and  pre- 
vent that  which  may  be  detrimental. 

3.  To  secure  improved  facilities  of  transportation. 

4.  To  secure  a  better  and  more  uniform  system  of  packing 
and  packages. 

5.  To  devise  some  system  of  marketing  our  products. 

6.  To  obtain  an  improved  system  of  crop  reporting. 

7.  The  cooperative  purchase  of  supplies. 

In  only  one  of  these  seven  objects  which  the  association  sought 
to  obtain  have  we  failed  to  accomplish  results.  We  have  never 
been  able  to  devise  and  put  in  operation  a  marketing  system. 

The  first  point,  that  of  securing  and  disseminating  informa- 
tion, we  have  most  thoroughly  carried  in  our  annual  meeting 
and  in  our  reports. 

Our  legislative  committee  has  been  able  to  secure  the  passage 
of  some  needed  legislation.  Laws  regulating  the  size  of  the 
apple  barrel  and  box,  and  grape  and  other  fruit  packages ;  fumi- 
gation of  nursery  stock;  licensing  and  bonding  the  commission 
men ;  the  nurserymen's  liability  law,  and  the  packing  and  grading 
law  are  noticeable  instances  of  legislation  favorable  to  our  inter- 
ests, which  have  been  secured  largely  by  our  efforts. 

Much  has  been  done  toward  securing  better  transportation 
facilities,  notably  in  Weston,  N.  Y.,  in  the  peach-growing  section. 

The  crop  reports  have  been  issued  from  the  office  of  the  secre- 
tary either  two  or  three  times  each  season,  and,  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  members,  the  secretary  has  been  able  to  give  such 
reports  as  are  reliable  and  accurate.  They  have  proved  to  be  as 
accurate  as  the  government  reports  or  any  crop  reports  issued, 
and  are  so  regarded  by  the  trade. 

Perhaps  our  greatest  success  has  been  in  the  cooperative  pur- 
chase of  supplies.  We  have  been  able  to  purchase  vitriol,  arsenate 


NEW  YORK  STATE  FKUIT  GROWERS  ASSOCIATION       729 

of  lead,  paris  green,  sulphur,  fertilizers,  etc.,  so  as  to  save  thou- 
sands of  dollars  to  our  members  and  incidentally  to  benefit  every 
fruit  grower  in  the  state,  whether  members  of  the  association  or 
not,  because  our  trade  has  helped  to  bring  down  and  keep  down 
the  price  of  all  these  materials.  We  have  purchased  for  our 
members  nearly  $100,000  worth  of  supplies. 

In  March,  1905,  the  association  was  regularly  incorporated. 

EASTERN  NEW  YORK  SOCIETY 

The  Hudson  Valley  Horticultural  Society  was  organized  in 
1896,  with  James  Wood,  of  Mt.  Kisco,  president;  W.  F.  Tabor, 
Poughkeepsie,  vice  president;  Edward  van  Alstyne,  Kinderhook, 
secretary ;  B.  D.  Van  Buren,  Stockport,  treasurer ;  E.  G.  Fowler, 
Port  Jervis,  corresponding  secretary. 

The  first  meeting  was  held  at  Poughkeepsie.  The  next  year 
the  title  was  changed  to  the  "  Eastern  New  York  Horticultural 
Society,"  the  officers  being  the  same,  except  that  the  office  of 
treasurer  and  corresponding  secretary  were  merged  into  that  of 
secretary. 

In  1898,  the  annual  meeting  was  held  at  Albany,  Edwin  C. 
Powell,  of  Westchester  County,  succeeding  Mr.  van  Alstyne  as 
secretary. 

In  1899,  and  until  the  society  was  merged  with  the  Fruit 
Growers,  the  annual  meetings  were  held  at  the  American  Insti- 
tute, New  York  City.  At  that  time  Mr.  Charles  H.  Royce,  of 
Rhinebeck,  Dutchess  County,  succeeded  to  the  secretaryship. 

In  1900,  Mr.  Geo.  T.  Powell,  of  Ghent,  Columbia  County, 
became  president. 

For  three  years  the  association  published  a  quarterly  journal 
known  as  the  "  Hudson  Valley  Horticulturist/'  which  contained 
the  annual  report  and  other  matters  of  interest  to  the  members. 

Very  soon  after  the  organization  of  the  state  society  in  1901, 
the  Eastern  New  York  Horticultural  society  by  unanimous  vote 
became  a  part  of  this  association,  turning  over  their  annual  and 
life  members  numbering  275  to  this  association,  also  such  funds 
as  were  in  the  treasury,  the  New  York  State  Fruit  Growers' 
Association  agreeing  to  hold  an  annual  meeting  each  year  in 
the  Hudson  Valley. 


730  THE  ERUIT  INDUSTRY  OF  ^SEW  YORK  STATE 

SUMMER  OR  FIELD   MEETINGS 

Summer  or  field  meetings  have  been  held  each  year.  Two 
have  been  held  at  Sodus,  two  at  Olcott  Beach,  two  at  the  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Geneva,  one  each  at  Penn  Yaii,  Albion,  Hilton, 
Ithaca,  Fredonia,  and  Plattsburg. 

The  educational  feature  in  the  way  of  speeches,  etc.,  is  sub- 
ordinated largely  to  the  visiting  of  large  fruit  farms  and  learning 
by  observation  instead  of  precept.  It  has  come  to  be  regarded  by 
our  members  as  the  annual  event  of  the  summer. 


HUDSON   RIVER  FRUIT  EXCHANGE 
\\'M.  Y.  VELIE,  MARLBORO,  ULSTER  Co.,  N.  Y. 


ITS    C<).\(   KI'TIOX    AM)    ()i:<  JAM/AT  ION 

In  March,  1912,  the  writer,  with  Mr. 
C.  E.  Thurston  of  New  York  City,  called 
on  the  representative  fruit  growers  living 
iii  that  section  of  country  located  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River  between 
Newburg  and  Highland,  known  as  the  Cen- 
tral Hudson  fruit  district.  The  object  of 
this  call  was  to  present  a  plan  of  organizing 
the  fruit  growers  of  this  section  for  the 
purpose  of  mutually  protecting  their  inter- 
ests through  cooperation.  The  suggestions 
made  met  with  such  universal  favor  that 
n  mooting  was  called  about  ten  days  afterwards,  which  forty  in- 


FIG.  18s. —  KxTKRior:  OK  OFFICE  OF  HUDSON  RIVER  FRUIT  EXCHANGE 

[731] 


732  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  OF  XEW  YORK  STATE 

terested  growers  attended.  At  this  meeting  the  whole  project  was 
discussed,  and  a  committee  of  five  were  appointed  to  draft  a  con- 
stitution and  hy-laws,  which  are  printed  below.  The  only  change 
made  is  that  we  increased  our  capital  stock  to  $4,000  at  our 
yearly  meeting,  May  1,  1914. 

CONSTITUTION 


AETICLE  I 

This  Association  shall  be  called  the  Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange,  Inc. 
It  shall  have  a  capital  stock  of  two  thousand  ($2,000)  dollars,  divided  into 
one  hundred  shares  of  twenty  ($20)  dollars  each,  fifty  per  cent  of  which  shall 
be  paid  in  at  once,  and  the  remaining  fifty  per  cent  at  such  times  and  in  such 
installments  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Executive  Committee.  It  shall  be 
incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  state  of  Xew  York,  and  when  fully  paid 
its  shares  shall  be  non-assessable.  Xo  member  may  own  more  than  four 
shares  of  stock.  Stock  in  this  exchange  carries  no  voting  power,  but  each 
registered  member  is  entitled  to  one  vote. 

On  February  28,  1914,  the  amount  of  capital  stock  was  increased  to  four 
thousand  dollars  ($4,000)  divided  into  two  hundred  shares  of  twenty  ($20) 
dollars  each. 

ARTICLE  II 

It  shall  embrace  the  fruit  growing  sections  along  the  Hudson  River,  with 
headquarters  at  Milton,  Ulster  County,  N.  Y. 

Its  members  shall  consist  of  such  persons  as  are  growers  of  fruit  for  market 
and  are  accepted  by  the  Executive  Committee,  and  have  purchased  at  least 
one  share  of  the  capital  stock  at  such  price  as  the  Exchange  may  name. 

ARTICLE    III 

An  Executive  Committee  of  seven  members  shall  have  the  general  manage- 
ment of  all  the  affairs  of  the  Exchange.  They  shall  be  elected  by  ballot  at 
the  annual  meeting  in  1912,  one  for  the  term  of  three  years,  two  for  the  term 
of  two  years,  and  two  for  the  term  of  one  year.  At  the  annual  meeting  of 
1914  two  members  shall  be  elected  to  serve  for  a  term  of  one  year.  At  each 
subsequent  annual  meeting  members  shall  be  elected  for  the  term  of  three 
years,  to  fill  vacancies  of  the  outgoing  class.  The  Executive  Committee  shall 
fill  vacancies,  to  serve  until  the  next  annual  meeting. 

A  majority  of  the  Executive  Committee  shall  constitute  a  quorum.  The 
Executive  Committee  shall  have  the  power  to  appoint  Auditing  and  other 
special  committees  as  occasion  may  require.  The  Executive  Committee  is 
prohibited  from  borrowing  money  in  the  name  of  the  Exchange  except  when 
specifically  authorized. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  appoint  from  its  body,  members  to  act  as 
President  and  Vice-President,  for  terms  of  one  year,  and  shall  further  appoint 
a  stockholder,  who  may  or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the  Executive  Committee, 
to  act  as  Secretary-Treasurer  for  a  term  of  one  year. 


HUDSON  RIVER  FRUIT  EXCHANGE  733 

ARTICLE  V 

Any  member  of  the  Executive  Committee  shall  be  subject  to  recall  by  the 
Exchange.  Upon  a  petition  being  signed  by  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  members,  the  Executive  Committee  shall  call  a  special  meeting  of  the 
Exchange  to  consider  the  petition,  and  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  total  members 
present  shall  recall  such  committeemen  from  office. 

ARTICLE  VI 

The  Constitution  and  By-Laws  may  be  amended  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present  at  any  meeting  of  the  Exchange,  provided  notice  of  the 
proposed  amendments,  with  a  copy  of  the  same,  be  mailed  to  each  member 
at  least  ten  days  in  advance  of  such  meeting. 

BY-LAWS 


ARTICLE  I 

The  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  Exchange  shall  be  held  on  the  first 
Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in  May  of  each  year,  except  in  1912,  when 
the  organization  meeting  shall  be  considered  the  annual  meeting  for  that  year. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  "have  the  power  to  call  such  meetings  as 
it  may  deem  necessary  or  expedient,  notices  of  such  meetings  to  be  mailed  to 
each  member  at  least  three  days  prior  thereto. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  meet  at  such  times  as  may  seem  advisable 
to  it,  or  at  the  call  of  the  President. 

ARTICLE  II 

The  fiscal  year  of  the  Exchange  shall  be  from  May  1  until  April  30 
inclusive. 

ARTICLE  III 

Copies  of  all  rules  and  regulations  which  may  from  time  to  time  be  made 
by  the  Exchange  or  its  Executive  Committee  shall  be  mailed  to  each  member. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  have  power  to  suspend  from  the  Exchange 
any  member  who  does  not  comply  with  all  the  laws,  usages  and  regulations 
now  in  force  or  which  may  hereafter  be  adopted  by  the  Exchange  or  its  duly 
authorized  Executive  Committee.  If  a  suspended  member  desires,  the  Presi- 
dent shall,  upon  a  petition  signed  by  ten  members,  call  a  special  meeting  of 
the  Exchange  to  act  upon  his  case,  and  said  suspended  member  must  abide 
by  the  decision  arrived  at  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  members  present  at  said 
meeting. 

ARTICLE  V 

All  bills  authorized  by  the  Exchange  or  its  Executive  Committee  and  all 
other  payments  especially  authorized  by  the  Exchange  shall  be  paid  by  the 
Treasurer  by  check,  countersigned  by  the  President. 

ARTICLE  VI 

Members  of  this  Exchange  bind  themselves  when  consigning  fruit  to  ship 
only  to  commission  houses  or  auctions,  duly  designated  by  the  Exchange. 


73-J: 


THE  FRUIT  IXDUSTKY  or  XEW  YORK  STATE 


They  also  agree   to   ship   all   fruit   up   to   the   grade   under   the   label   of  the 
Exchange,  and  fruit  not  up  to  grade  without  the  label. 

ARTICLE  VII 

Fruit  sold  through  the  Exchange  f.  o.  b.  shipping  point  or  on  track  shall 
pay  to  the  Exchange  a  commission  of  three  per  cent  of  the  gross  price.  In 
such  cases  the  Exchange  stands  behind  such  sales  ?nd  guarantees  the  price 
to  the  grower.  The  members  reserve  the  right  to  negotiate  private  sales  on 
which  no  commission  shall  be  due  the  Exchange. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

At  the  end  of  each  fiscal  year,  after  all  the  expenses  of  the  Exchange  shall 
have  been  paid,  the  Executive  Committee  shall  from  any  surplus  remaining 
declare  a  dividend  not  exceeding  five  per  cent  on  the  par  value  of  shares 
issued.  The  entire  balance  of  such  surplus  shall  be  distributed  among  the 
members  who  have  shipped  fruit  through  the  Exchange  during  such  year  in 
proportion  to  the  value  of  their  respective  shipments. 


As  Milton  is  the  most  centrally  located  of  our  loading  stations, 
the  office  is  situated  there.     In.  May  we  were  incorporated  and 


FIG.  ISO. —  OFFICE  OF  HUDSON  RIVER  FRUIT  EXCHANGE 

ready  for  business.  Our  first  problem  was  to  secure  a  manager 
to  run  the  office,  which,  by  the  way,  is  the  most  important  part  of 
the  organization.  We  knew  of  no  one  suitable,  since  one  of  the 


KIVKK  KKTIT  EXCHANGE  735 

requirements  was  that  ho  should  not  be  personally  interested  in 
any  one  of  the  members;  therefore  we  advertised  for  a  manager 
that  understood  the  fruit  business  along  the  line  on  which  we  were 
working.  \Ve  succeeded  in  hiring  a  very  competent  young  man, 
who,  through  his  ability  and  energy,  soon  established  us  as  an  or- 
ganization that  had  fruit  to  sell  at  right  prices,  quality  considered. 
Since  we  need  a  source  of  income  to  pay  the  running  expenses 
of  our  office,  we  adopted  the  following  plan :  All  members  are 
charged  3  per  cent  on  the  supplies  purchased  for  them  and  on  all 
sales  of  fruit  made  by  the  exchange.  If  a  commission  were  paid 
to  the  association  on  all  sales  made  bv  each  member  it  would  be 


RUITEXCHANG 


FIG.  190. —  STORAGE  ROOM  OF  HUDSON  RIVER  FRUIT  EXCHANGE 

much  better,  but  this  restriction  could  not  be  enforced  at  once. 
However,  we  have  hopes  of  soon  amending  our  by-laws  covering 
this  point. 

SELLING    THROUGH     COMMISSION     HOUSES 

We  had  as  our  main  object  the  selling  of  our  fruit  f.  o.  b. 
loading  station,  but  realized  that  we  could  not  accomplish  this 
ideal  condition  at  once.  We  were  thus  compelled  to  make  ar- 


736  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  or  XEW  YORK  STATE 

rangements  with  commission  houses  in  the  different  large  markets. 
It  is  the  custom  of  commission  houses  to  charge  10  per  cent  for 
selling  the  fruit  and  paying  a  soliciting  agent  3  per  cent  for  his 
services.  We  therefore  arranged  with  a  limited  number  of  com- 
mission houses  to  pay  the  exchange  this  rebate  on  all  fruit  sold 
for  the  members  of  the  exchange.  It  has  been  our  policy  to  con- 
centrate our  shipments,  and  to  that  end  we  selected  a  limited 
number  of  commission  houses  to  sell  our  fruit.  In  the  beginning 
they  were  a  little  backward  about  signing  up  in  this  way,  but 
since  we  demonstrated  that  we  are  here  to  stay,  we  have  many 
more  applications  than  we  care  to  sign  up  for.  Our  office  being 
centrally  located,  and  with  telephone  connection  with  almost 
every  member,  it  becomes  an  information  bureau  in  the  truest 
sense  of  the  word.  In  the  fruit-shipping  season,  telephone  and 
telegraph  messages  are  received  from  all  the  large  markets,  and 
the  manager  and  his  assistant  are  kept  busy  advising  the  shippers 
of  the  best  market  to  which  to  ship  their  fruit  each  day. 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  DIRECT 

The  office  also  receives  quotations  on  all  kinds  of  feed  and 
other  supplies  needed  by  the  members.  As  soon  as  the  wants  of 
the  members  amount  to  a  sufficient  quantity,  the  manager  orders 
a  carload  or  less,  as  the  case  may  be;  in  the  case  of  feed  it  must 
be  not  less  than  a  carload.  Our  office  is  constantly  mailing  let- 
ters to  prospective  buyers  of  our  fruit,  in  this  way  continually 
reminding  them  what  we  have  to  sell.  We  have  thus  worked  up 
a  reputation  which  has  resulted  in  selling  a  great  deal  of  our  fruit 
at  the  station  at  a  price  equal  or  better  than  the  wholesale  price, 
thus  saving  the  express  charges  and  commission.  In  1913,  we 
sold  all  of  our  strawberries  and  pears  and  a  large  amount  of  our 
other  fruits  in  this  way. 

I  will  now  state  in  actual  figures  just  what  has  been  accom- 
plished. During  out  first  year  we  purchased  20  carloads  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  at  a  saving  of  at  least  $2,500  to  our  40  members.  We 
purchased  200  tons  of  commercial  fertilizer,  saving  $5  per  ton. 
Spraying  material,  fruit  packages,  and  in  fact  all  we  need  on  our 
farms  was  bought  at  the  same  average  saving. 


HUDSON  UivEu  FRUIT  EXCHANGE  737 

MEMBERSHIP    AND   FINANCES 

In  our  initial  year  we  bought  and  sold  $110,000  worth  of 
goods,  paid  our  office  expenses,  saved  our  members  several  thou- 
sands of  dollars,  and  were  encouraged  to  go  ahead  with  the  assur- 
ance that  we  were  on  the  right  track.  All  of  this  was  done  on  a 
capital  of  about  $500. 

The  second  year  we  started  with  an  increased  membership 
numbering  (50  and  with  a  capital  of  $1,200;  we  did  an  aggregate 
business  of  $280,000,  of  which  $35,000  was  for  goods  sold  f.  o.  b. 
loading  stations,  $40,000  for  supplies  purchased,  and  the  balance 
for  goods  sold  on  commission. 

The  third  year  of  our  work  we  began  with  a  membership  of 
110  and  a  capital  of  $2,200,  but  this  year  was  fraught  with  many 


KKJ.  191.— LOADING  BY  CARLOAD  AT  MILTON.  N.  Y.     MANAGER  R.  B.  CROWELL 
IN  FOREGROUND  WITH  CAP 

contingencies.  Prices  ruled  very  low  on  most  of  our  small  fruits, 
especially  currants,  many  remaining  unpicked.  A  drought  and  a 
hail  storm  injured  the  pear,  apple,  and  grape  crops,  and  there 
were  no  peaches  at  all..  In  spite  of  all  these  conditions,  our 
manager  sold  over  100  tons  of  currants  and  grapes  respectively, 
at  a  price  that  helped  us  over  the  hard  places.  The  total  of  this 
year's  business  was  nearly  $200,000  with'  the  same  relative  saving 
to  each  member,  or  a  total  saving  of  at  least  $10,000.  Our  f.  o.  b. 


738 


THE  lutuiT 


i.\ 


OKK     TATE 


IIlDSO.N    IllVEll   FlM'iT  EXCIIAMJK 


739 


sales  were  more  than  the  year  before,  which  shows  that  we  were 
gaining  on  the  sale-at-home  plan.  We  also  increased  our  mem- 
bership to  132,  which  tended  to  prove  that  we  had  made  another 
step.  Up  to  this  time  we  had  lost  but  two  members ;  through  their 
failure  to  live  up  to  our  by-laws  it  became  necessary  to  suspend 
them. 

The  fourth  year  of  our  work  started  with  a  membership  of  140, 
and  was  increased  to  150. 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS    AND     PROSPECTS 

Just  after  our  last  yearly  meeting  we  organized  a  branch  office 
at  Athens,   Greene   County,   X.    V.,   which   is  working  out  very 


FIG.  193. —  UNLOADING  FEED  AT  ONE  LOADING  STATION  OF  THE  HUDSON  RIVER 

FRUIT  EXCHANGE 

satisfactorily.  This  year  our  manager  sold  all  of  the  Bartlett 
pears  in  the  organization,  making  at  least  $3,000  in  the  deal  for 
the  members.  When  currants  were  not  worth  the  picking,  the 
exchange  made  arrangements  to  press  out  and  preserve  the  juice 
from  about  100  tons  of  this  fruit.  This  is  something  altogether 
new,  and  it  looks  now  as  if  we  would  dispose  of  this  product  at  a 


740  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  OF  XEW  YORK  STATE 

profit.  This  could  not  have  been  done  were  we  not  organized, 
and  goes  to  prove  that  in  unity  there  are  many  ways  to  help  each 
other'.  At  the  present  time  our  office  is  in  close  touch  with  apple 
and  pear  buyers,  which  will  result  in  making  the  last  deals  of  the 
season  bring  up  the  average  business  of  the  fiscal  year  to  that  of 
the  previous  ones. 

From  our  experience  as  related  above  it  may  seem  that  we  had 
plain  sailing  from  the  start,  but  I  must  add  that  we  have  had  our 
troubles.  In  the  first  place,  it  took  a  great  deal  of  argument  to 
enlist  more  than  the  original  40  members,  but  we  have  persisted, 
and  the  results  we  can  show  help  us  in  adding  new  members 
without  much  solicitation.  This  is  the  first  organization  that  has 
ever  lasted  over  a  few  months  in  this  section,  and  almost  every 
one  was  skeptical  as  to  this  one.  The  commission  houses  and 
their  soliciting  agents  were  especially  active  in  condemnation  of 
it ;  but  we  have  established  ourselves  as  an  institution  that  is  here 
to  stay,  and  now  the  commission  houses  urge  us  to  put  them  on 
our  list.  We  have  many  more  things  to  do,  some  of  which  are: 
to  arrange  for  a  central  cold  storage  and  packing  house  at  each 
station;  to  institute  an  organized  system  of  grading  fruits  other 
than  apples,  the  latter  being  now  governed  by  state  law;  to  pro- 
vide for  a  mutual  preserving  and  canning  plant  to  care  for  our 
surplus;  to  develop  a  plan  whereby  we  may  be  able  to  get  our 
fruit  to  the  consumer  without  the  present  exorbitant  expense. 

ESSENTIALS    OF    SUCCESS 

The  measure  of  success  we  enjoy  may  be  attributed  to  having 
carried  out  the  following  policy:  efficient  office  management;  a 
conservative  and  interested  executive  committee;  moderate  capi- 
tal nised  in  conducting  the  business  on  a  cash  basis;  interested  and 
loyal  membership. 


THE  APPLE 

Come,  let  us  plant  the  apple  tree. 
Cleave  the  tough  greensward  with  the  spade; 
Wide  let  its  hollow  bed  be  made; 
There  gently  lay  the  roots,  and  there 
Sift  the  dark  mold  with  kindly  care, 

And  press  it  o'er  them  tenderly, 
As,  round  the  sleeping  infant's  feet, 
We  softly  fold  the  cradle-sheet; 

So  plant  we  the  apple  tree. 

What  plant  we  in  this  apple  tree? 
Buds,  which  the  breath  of  summer  days 
Shall  lengthen  into  leafy  sprays; 
Boughs  where  the  thrush,  with  crimson  breast, 
Shall  haunt  and  sing  and  hide  her  nest; 

We  plant,  upon  the  sunny  lea, 
A  shadow  for  the  noontide  hour, 
A  shelter  from  the  summer  shower, 

When  we  plant  the  apple  tree. 

WILLIAM   CULLEN   BRYANT 

(From  "  The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree.") 
[741] 


MclNTOSH 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA  AND 
NEW  YORK  STATE 

CHAKI.KS  S.  WILSON 
New  York  State  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  cultivated  apple,  as  we  know  it  to- 
day, is  not  an  indigenous  fruit,  but  one 
introduced  into  this  country  by  early  set- 
tlers.    The  only  native  apple  is  what  is 
•  M  commonly  called  the  crab,  but  which  scien- 

tifically belongs  to  four  diiferent  species. 
They  are  Pyrus  coronaria,  P.  august  if  olid, 
P.  rivularis,  and  P.  loensis,  all  of  which 
were  found  growing  wild  in  the  forest  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  country. 
Pyrus  coronaria,  the  garland  crab  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  northeastern 

states,  is  a  small,  slow-growing,  and  thorny  tree  producing  flat- 
tened, yellow-green  fruit.  It  is  frequently  confused  with  Pyrus 
anyusiifolia,  a  wild  crab  of  the  south,  but  should  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  narrow,  half-evergreen,  arid  shining  leaves  that 
offer  a  striking  contrast  to  the  short  ovate  and  often  three-lobed 
petioles  of  P.  coronaria.  Both  are  hard  woods  and  uniformly 
smooth.  The  Oregon  crab,  P.  rivularis,  is  the  largest  growing 
species  of  the  native  apple,  its  trees  attaining  to  a  height  of  from 
25  to  40  feet.  It  is  found  from  Alaska  to  northern  California, 
and  was  at  one  time  used,  for  food  by  the  Indians  and  early  white 
settlers. 

The  most  promising  of  the  native  apples  is  the  prairie  states 
crab,  Pyrus  loensis,  which  is  growth,  leaves,  and  flowers  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  Pyrus  Malus.  The  leaves  are  rather  large, 
firm  in  texture,  and  white-pubescent  underneath,  growing  on  thick, 
pubescent  petioles.  Its  fruits  are  spherical  and  spherical-oblong, 
a  dull,  rather  heavy  green  in  color,  with  light-colored  dots  on 


NOTE. —  In  gathering  the  material  for  this  article  a  questionnaire  was  sent  out 
to  about  three  hundred  of  the  leading  fruit-growers  and  nurserymen  of  the  state, 
asking  them  for  information  regarding  the  introduction  and  history  of  the  apple 
in  their  respective  sections.  Through  the  courteous  response  of  these  growers,  a 
fairly  complete  history  of  the  apple  has  been  obtained. 

[7431 


744  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

the  skin.  They  are  more  irregular  in  shape  than  P.  coronaria, 
have  a  greasy  feel,  and  are  larger  and  less  handsome.  P.  loensis 
is  said  to  have  produced  a  number  of  promising  hybrids  that  are 
known  as  Pyrus  Soulardi.  All  of  the  species  named  above  are 
small  in  size  and  inferior  in  quality,  and  thus  far  are  of  little  or 
no  economic  value.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  as  the  science  of 
pomology  advances  such  hardy  specimens  will  make  excellent 
stock  with  which  to  cross  our  commercial  varieties  or  on  which  to 
graft  others. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  IN  THE  COLONIES 

The  history  of  the  cultivated  apple  may  be  said  to  begin  with 
the  history  of  our  own  country.  The  earliest  records  are  found  in 
the  history  of  Plymouth  Colony,  where  Peregrine  White,  the  first 
Englishman  born  in  Xew  England,  planted  an  apple  tree  at  Marsh- 
field  about  1648.  In  Russell's  Guide  to  Plymouth,  published  in 
1846,  the  tree  is  described  as  being  seventeen  feet  in  height,  and 
the  old  trunk,  then  mostly  decayed,  was  said  to  measure  six  feet 
in  length,  four  and  one-half  feet  in  circumference,  and  to  be  still 
bearing  fruit.  There  are  likewise  records  of  many  other  trees  and 
orchards  that  settlers  planted  before  the  year  1700,  all  of  them 
strong  growers  but  inferior  in  the  quality  of  the  fruit. 

In  Massachusetts  Colony,  the  farm  of  Governor  Endicott  was 
known  by  the  name  of  "  Orchard  "  as  early  as  1643.  In  1648,  he 
is  recorded  as  having  exchanged  with  William  Trask  five  hundred 
apple  trees  of  three-year  growth  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of 
land.  His  neighbor,  William  Blackstone,  the  first  settler  on  the 
peninsula  of  Boston,  had  an  orchard  near  his  residence  and  raised 
apple  trees  on  land  that  now  forms  the  corner  of  Beacon  and 
Charles  streets.  After  his  removal  to  Rhode  Island,  he  planted  the 
first  orchard  that  ever  bore  apples  in  that  state,  at  Study  Hill,  near 
Pawtucket.  Governor  Winthrop  was  also  interested  in  orcharding, 
and  in  April,  1632,  Conants  Island  in  Boston  Harbor  was  granted 
to  him  to  plant  a  vineyard  and  an  orchard,  which  thenceforth 
became  known  as  the  "  Governor's  Garden."  The  correspondence 
of  his  son,  John  Winthrop,  jr.,  shows  that  he  also  was  interested 
in  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  and  continued  the  work  that  his 
father  had  begun.  By  the  year  1648,  a  resident  of  Cambridge, 


I.XTKMHU  CTIOX    OF    THE    AlTLK    INTO    AMERICA 


745 


FIG.  194.— MONUMENT  TO  MrLvrosn  RED,  AT  DUXDELA,  DUNDAS  COUNTY, 
ONTARIO,  CANADA 

The  following  inscription  appears  on  the  tablet:  "The  original  Mclntosh 
Red  apple  tree  stood  about  20  rods  north  of  this  spot.  It  was  one  of  a  number 
of  seedlings  taken  from  the  border  of  the  clearings  and  transplanted  by  John 
Mclntosh  in  the  year  1796.  Erected  by  popular  subscription,  1912."  The  old 
tree  was  so  injured  by  fire  that  it  died  in  1908,  when  about  112  years  old. 
(Courtesy  of  John  D.  Dain,  Morrisburg,  Ontario.) 


746  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

one  S.   Danforth,  records  the  gathering  of  several  varieties  — 
among  them  the  Long  apples,  Blacktoii's  Tankerd,  Kreton  Pippin, 
Long  Red  apples,  Russetin,  and  Pearmains,  indicating  how  wide- 
spread apple  cultivation  had  become. 

In  1641,  a  resident  of  Connecticut  Colony,  George  Tenwick  of 
Saybrook,  expresses  his  regret  that  his  "  good  iiurserie  of  aples 
haue  been  destroyed  by  wormes  " ;  and  in  1656,  John  Mason  of 
the  same  town  writes  to  a  friend  of  exporting  trees  for  planting. 
Several  of  the  oldest  trees  on  record  were  found  here  and  in 
Massachusetts,  and  some  of  them  even  produced  apples  when  near- 
ing  the  second  century  mark.  In  Maine,  apple  orchards  were  said 
to  have  been  planted  at  a  very  early  date,  and  the  tradition  is 
borne  out  in  the  relics  of  Old  Orchard  Beach,  where  very  ancient 
trees  still  existed  as  late  as  1770. 

Fragmentary  though  our  information  on  the  early  history  of  the 
apple  must  necessarily  be,  it  gives  us  some  idea  of  what  its  intro- 
duction in  the  New  World  meant.  'The  early  settler  had  struggled 
hard  to  found  a  new  country,  and  many  were  the  hardships  he 
endured.  We  need  not  wonder  then  that  so  little  attention  was 
given  to  keeping  the  records  of  the  less  important  industries,  as 
that  of  the  apple  must  have  been. 

INFLUENCE  OF  EARLY  BOTANIC  GARDENS 

The  early  introduction  and  dissemination  of  apples  throughout 
the  country  was  materially  aided  through  the  establishment  of 
botanic  gardens  that  were  conducted  by  private  individuals  inter- 
ested in  the  horticultural  development  of  the  Xew  World.  These 
natural-born  botanists  constantly  received  productions  from  Eng- 
land and  Europe,  and  tested  and  disseminated  mem  to  a  wide  ex- 
tent in  America.  The  Bartram  Garden  near  Philadelphia  was  the 
first  of  these  and  was  begun  in  1728  by  John  Bartram,  a  horticul- 
turist well  known  to  the  distinguished  botanists  of  Europe.  In 
1773,  a  second  garden  was  established  at  West  Bradford,  Penn., 
by  Humphrey  Marshall,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  William  Prince  founded  a  third,  the  Linna^an  Botanic 
Garden  at  Flushing,  Long  Island.  For  several  generations  he  and 
his  descendants  conducted  the  most  extensive  nurseries  in  the 
country,  and  much  was  accomplished  through  their  enterprise. 


INTEODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMEIUCA  747 


FIG.  195. —  MARKER  ERECTED  TO  ORIGINAL  NORTHERN  SPY  AT  BLOOM  FIELD, 

ONTABIO  COUNTY 

On  the  tablet  is  engraved  the  following  inscription:  "The  original 
Northern  Spy  apple  tree  stood  about  14  rods  south  of  this  spot,  in  a 
seedling  orchard  planted  by  Herman  Chapin  about  1800.  The  Early  Joe 
and  Melon  apples  also  originated  in  this  orchard." 

(Photograph  l>y  Ontario  Fruit-growers'  Society.) 


748  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Even  in  the  time  of  Bartram,  however,  "  great  quantities "  of 
apples  were  being  exported,  which  we  are  told  were  superior  in 
flavor  to  those  produced  in  England  and  Italy.  Without  doubt 
the  varieties  introduced  and  disseminated  were  many,  but  history 
gives  us  no  record  of  what  they  were  nor  to  what  extent  the  dis- 
semination was  carried  on. 

THE    APPLE    IN    NEW    YORK    STATE 

As  the  tide  of  immigration  moved  westward,  the  pioneers  carried 
with  them  the  fruit  of  their  primitive  homes  to  the  frontiers  of 
civilization.  Not  only  did  the  apple  keep  pace  with  civilization, 
however ;  it  even  passed  beyond  the  farthest  outposts,  for  fruit  and 
seed  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians  and  by  them  were  carried 
into  the  wilderness.  In  this  manner,  the  apple  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Seneca  and  Cayuga  Indians  and  in  all  probability  of 
other  tribes  scattered  here  and  there  throughout  the  state.  The  <Sen- 
ecas  and  Cayugas  were  the  most  highly  civilized,  however,  and  their 
section  was  particularly  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing,  so  that  it 
was  in  this  region  almost  entirely  that-  General  Sullivan  saw 
apple  orchards  regularly  laid  out  and  bending  with  fruit  during 
his  raid  into  western  New  York  in  1779.  In  that  year,  we  are 
told,  he  found  seventy  apple  trees  at  the  Indian  village  of  Kendaia, 
or  Appleton  (Apple  Town),  near  Seneca  Lake,  in  the  west  part 
of  the  town  of  Romulus,  Seneca  County.  At  this  time  the  trees 
appeared  to  be  fifty  years  old,  which  would  make  the  date  of  plant- 
ing as  early  as  1730.  In  a  little  book  called  "  The  Lake  Country," 
by  John  Corbett,  it  is  recorded  that  during  his  campaign  Sullivan 
felled  apple  trees  numbering  into  the  thousands.  This  may  have 
been  true,  because  we  have  record  of  orchards  having  existed  near 
the  village  of  Levanna  on  Cayuga  Lake,  along  what  is  now  the 
south  line  of  the  town  of  Seneca  Falls,  and  in  Yates  County,  which 
lies  a  little  to  the  south.  The  fruit  of  the  trees  in  the  orchard  at 
Levanna  was  so  choice  that  settlers  came  miles  to  cut  grafts  in 
order  to  provide  orchards  near  their  new  homes,  but  for  the  most 
part  the  Indian  trees  bore  poor  fruit.  In  the  region  of  Oswego  the 
first  orchard  on  record  was  planted  by  the  Indians,  and  stood  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Oswego  River  eight  miles  to  the  south  of  the 
present  city.  The  early  settlers  bought  the  land  and  orchard  from 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA  749 

the  Indians  in   171)5.     It  was  then  in  bearing  and  probably  thirty 
or  forty  years  old. 

Orchards  in  Hudson  River  Valley  Section 

The  introduction  and  growth  of  the  apple  industry  was  influ- 
enced by  settlers  in  two  distinct  sections  of  New  York  State  —  in 
the  eastern  part,  or  Hudson  River  Valley  section,  and  in  the 
western  part,  or  the  Lake  Section.  The  earliest  apple  orchard  in 
the  state  dates  back  to  the  Dutch,  and  from  the  data  available 
one  may  say  that  the  beginning  of  the  apple  industry  in  New  York 
was  made  by  the  Dutch,  which  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  the 
Hudson  Valley  section  first.  A  little  further  up  the  Hudson  at 
Kinderhook,  apples  were  planted  by  the  Dutch  over  two  hundred 
years  ago,  shortly  after  the  country  was  settled.  The  majority 
were  natural  fruits  and  were  used  for  making  cider.  They  did  not 
come  into  use  for  eating,  cooking,  and  drying  purposes  until  about 
1830  to  1840. 

Colonists  from  New  England,  settling  on  Long  Island  as  early 
as  1640,  set  out  their  first  apple  trees  about  1698,  and  within  a  few 
yours  some  of  these  trees  were  still  in  existence  and  in  fairly  good 
condition.  Later,  in  1735,  at  this  same  section,  the  settlers  planted 
orchards  of  Yellow  Sweetings,  Greenings,  Russettspand  Pippins, 
which  in  all  probability  came  from  New  England.  Up  along  the 
Hudson,  small  orchards  were  planted  by  the  English,  who  came 
from  Long  Island  as  early  as  1750,  and  by  1770  there  were  settlers 
who  were  starting  apple  orchards  near  Amsterdam,  but  whether 
they  came  across  from  Connecticut  or  up  from  New  York  remains 
uncertain.  A  little  later,  about  1780,  Thomas  McClumphia  set- 
tled at  what  is  now  Scotch  Bush,  just  across  the  Mohawk  River, 
south  of  Amsterdam,  and  planted  an  orchard  there.  Ten  years 
later,  the  apple  was  introduced  a  little  farther  west  along  the  Mo- 
hawk River  near  Clinton  and  New  Hartford,  which  was  at  that 
time  unbroken  forest  land.  It  is  also  recorded  that  in  1792  or 
1793  an  orchard  was  planted  by  D.  S.  Kirkland  near  Clinton, 
with  seed  that  was  brought  from  Connecticut.  The  original  trees 
were  seedlings  that  in  1820  were  grafted  to  the  improved  varieties. 
Coming  down  to  the  present  time,  we  find  that  the  more  recent 
orchards  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley  district  developed  from  a 


750  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

small  nursery  started  near  Athens,  Greene  County,  New  York,  in 
1840,  and  a  little  later  from  another  nursery  near  Hudson  in 
Columbia  County.  Improved  varieties  were  being  extensively 
grown  at  this  time,  and  the  purpose  of  production  had  also 
changed.  Instead  of  being  used  mostly  for  the  production  of  cider, 
the  time  had  come  when  apples  were  regarded  as  a  staple  farm 
crop,  and  commercial  apple  growing  soon  became  popular. 

The  Work  of  Andrew  J.  and  Charles  Downing 
The  most  important  factor  in  influencing  the  fruit  industry  of 
the  Hudson  Valley  region  was  probably  the  Downings'  nursery  at 
Newburgh  and  the  untiring  labors  of  A.  J.  Downing  and  his 
brother  Charles.  At  what  time  the  Downing  nursery  was  started, 
I  am  unable  to  say.  We  know,  however,  that  it  was  before  1815, 
since  it  is  recorded  that  Charles  Downing,  who  was  born  in  1802, 
worked  in  his  father's  nursery  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  the  early 
forties,  A.  J.  Downing  made  a  study  of  the  common  fruits  with 
the  purpose  of  giving  a  description  of  all  varieties.  Con- 
sequently new  varieties  were  sent  to  him  for  identification  or 
introduction,  and  in  1845  appeared  his  "  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees 
of  America."  A.  J.  Downing  died  in  1852.  Although  the  Down- 
ing brothers  did  not  continue  in  the  nursery  business  later  than 
1850,  Charles  Downing  devoted  himself  to  a  life  study  of  the 
varieties  of  fruits,  on  which  subject  he  was  the  leading  authority 
until  his  death  in  1885.  One  can  readily  see  that  the  work  of  the 
father  and  the  two  sons  would  greatly  influence  the  apple  industry 
in  the  Hudson  Valley  region. 

Orchards  in  the  Lake  Section 

In. the  western  part,  or  lake  section  of  the  state,  the  first  settlers 
planted  apple  seeds  in  the  clearings,  where  they  grew  and.  produced 
seedlings  and  natural  fruit.  About  1830,  when  grafting  was  in- 
troduced, these  trees  were  grafted  to  improved  varieties.  In  many 
cases  the  union  of  the  graft  with  the  original  stock  can  still  readily 
be  distinguished  by  the  enlarged  growth  of  the  wood  about  three 
feet  from  the  ground. 

In  western  New  York,  the  earliest  record  of  the  apple  is  found 
in  Onondaga  County,  where  Asa  Danforth  settled  and,  in  1748, 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA 


751 


established  a  small  nursery,  from  which  apple  trees  and  seedlings 
\\cic  rather  widely  disseminated.  Fifty  years  later,  another 
orchard  was  planted  in  Onondaga  County,  on  what  is  now  the 
farm  of  Grant  Hutchings  near  Syracuse,  by  Gideon  Seely,  a 
surveyor  employed  by  the  state  to  lay  out  military  tracts.  Many 
of  these  trees  are  in  bearing  even  now,  and  it  is  still  possible  to 
detect  the  union  of  the  graft  from  the  original  tree  to  the  improved 
varieties. 


FIG.    190.— TABLET    UNVEILED    TO    PRIMATE    APPLE    TREE    IN    TOWN    OF 
CAMILLUS,  ONONDAGA  COUNTY,  BY  JOHN  T.  ROBERTS,  SEPTEMBER,  1903 

On  the  tablet  is  the  following  inscription :  "  On  this  farm  Calvin  D. 
Bingham,  about  1840,  produced  the  marvelous  Primate  apple,  named  by 
Charles  P.  Cowles.  God's  Earth  is  full  of  love  to  man." 

In  Seneca  County,  apple  trees  were  planted  by  Dr.  Alexander 
Coventry  on  a  large  farm  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  town  of 
Fayette,  but  not  long  after,  in  the  year  1792,  Dr.  Silas  Halsey,  of 
Long  Island,  settled  at  Ovid,  and  the  same  year,  after  procuring  a 
quart  of  apple  seed  from  an  Indian  orchard  near  Lodi  Landing,  he 
started  a  small  nursery.  In  the  same  year  still  another  orchard 
was  planted  at  Ovid  by  Joseph  Wilson,  and  shortly  after  Colonel 
Rynear  Covert  started  one  at  Farmerville,  now  known  as  the  vil- 
lage of  Interlaken. 


752 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


In  the  vicinity  of  Geneva,  tradition  tells  us,  several  nurseries 
were  established  among  the  stumps  left  in  the  old  Indian  orchards 
after  Sullivan's  raid  of  1779.  One  of  these  was  started  in  1792, 
on  the  farm  of  Nathan  White,  four  miles  west  of  Geneva,  and  in 
the  year  1884  was  still  proving  profitable.  About  1880,  settlers 
from  New  England  took  up  farming  just  west  of  Geneva  and  there 
found  new  trees  sprouted  from  orchards  that  Sullivan  had  burned. 
In  these  they  inserted  scions  that  they  had  brought  with  them,  and 
later  the  trees  were  grafted  to  improved  varieties.  At  about  the 
same  date  an  old  Indian  orchard  that  Sullivan  had  left  untouched 


FIG.  197. —  INDIAN  APPLE  TREE,  NEARLY  200  YEARS  OLD,  THAT  STOOD  UNTIL 

EECENTLY  IN  ORCHARD  OF  T.  B.  WILSON,  HALL,  N.  Y. 
(From  "Apples  of  New  York,"  ly  Professor  S.  A,  Beach) 

was  discovered  near  Seneca  Castle.  A  number  of  seedling  trees 
of  sufficient  value  to  propagate  were  developed  from  this. 

Near  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  was  still 
another  orchard  set  out  by  the  Indians  in  1817.  This  was  in  full 
bearing  up  to  the  year  1867,  but  at  that  time  was  removed  to  plant 
a  nursery. 

The  first  orchard  near  Hall,  New  York,  was  developed  on  the 
farm  of  Edward  Burrell  about  1801  from  seed  said  to  have  been 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA  753 

taken  from  natural  fruit,  found  growing  wild  in  the  woods,  but 
which  had  undoubtedly  been  scattered  there  by  the  Indians.  In 
the  orchard  of  T.  B.  Wilson,  Hall,  there  stood  until  recently  an 
apple  tree  said  to  have  been  planted  by  the  Indians.  Parts  of  the 
tree  had  been  grafted  to  different  species,  and  each  year  it  bore 
four  or  five  varieties.  It  1896,  it  produced  sixteen  barrels  of 
apples  in  all. 

Near  Waterloo  apple  orchards  were  set  out  about  1800,  although 
the  earliest  settlers  from  Pennsylvania  found  Indian  orchards  and 
scattering  trees  there  at  that  time.  Even  before  this  date  Samuel 
( 'astnor  is  recorded  as  having  planted  an  orchard  on  his  claim  a 
little  east  of  Penn  Yan. 

In  the  early  days  Tompkins  County  played  an  important  role  in 
the  apple  industry.  We  are  told  that  in  1800  Nathaniel  King, 
who  lived  at  Trumansburg,  returned  to  Dutchess  County  on  horse- 
back in  order  to  obtain  apple  seeds  with  which  to  start  a  nursery. 
From  the  trees  grown  by  him,  about  twenty  orchards  were  planted 
in  his  neighborhood,  ranging  from  forty  to  seventy-five  trees  each. 
Twenty  to  fifty  years  later,  after  grafting  had  been  introduced, 
the  trees  were  grafted  to  improved  varieties,  such  as  the  Green- 
ing, Bomanite,  Sweet  Bough,  and  King.  Some  time  during  the 
fifties,  a  nursery  was  started  at  Frog  Pond,  now  Fnmtenac  Beach 
on  Cayuga  Lake,  and  the  trees  were  budded  mostly  to  Kings, 
Greenings,  and  Baldwins.  Of  recent  years  the  last  trees  of  this 
nursery  were  set  out  as  a  large  orchard  near  Trumansburg,  and 
this  is  proving  one  of  the  best  orchards  in  that  section  to-day. 

In  Wayne  and  Monroe  counties  the  first  orchards  were  planted 
about  1795,  and  in  Orleans  County  a  little  later.  In  the  latter 
county  the  earliest  tree  of  which  we  have  record  was  planted  at 
the  mouth  of  Johnson's  Creek  by  a  young  girl  named  Kachel 
Lovell,  and  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  now  preserved  by  the  Pioneer 
Society  of  Orleans  County.  In  the  north  of  the  county,  orchards 
were  set  out  on  the  bank  of  Johnson's  Creek  in  1807.  The  trees 
here  are  still  standing  and  are  in  good  condition.  Another  orchard 
wes  set  out  at  Oak  Orchard  Creek  about  1808,  and  still  another  at 
Holley  in  1820.  Among  the  varieties  grown  on  the  latter  were  the 
Greening  and  Russett,  which  had  probably  been  brought  from  Long 
Island. 


754:  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW   YORK 

Near  Barker,  Niagara  County,  about  1810,  seeds  were  planted 
by  early  settlers  in  favorable  spots  in  the  clearing,  and  were  after- 
ward grafted  to  improved  varieties  obtained  from  the  former  homes 
of  pioneers  from  Xew  York  and  Xew  England.  The  plantings 
were  small  at  first,  perhaps  little  more  than  an  acre,  but  after  the 
Erie  Canal  became  a  popular  highway  for  transportation,  com- 
merce increased  and  larger  orchards  were  planted. 

In  1880,  Philemon  Xettleton  planted  the  first  orchard  in  Gene- 
see  County,  about  two  and  one-half  miles  east  of  Le  Roy  village 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Albany  Road,  with  seed  brought  from 
Connecticut.  Two  years  later  another  settler  brought  with  him 
enough  seed  to  plant  a  nursery,  and  from  this  most  of  the  early 
orchards  of  this  vicinity  were  developed. 

The  early  settlers  about  Dansville,  Livingston  County,  originally 
came  from  the  Wyoming  Valley,  Pennsylvania,  and  planted  seeds 
about  the  year  1796.  Other  apple  orchards  were  planted  in  the 
region  of  Batavia  about  1804,  from  seeds  brought  from  the  Xew 
England  States.  They  also  brought  with  them  a  number  of  seed- 
lings that  were  set  out  in  orchards,  this  being  the  only  instance 
recorded  of  settlers  bringing  young  trees  with  them.  These  trees 
were  later  grafted  to  Baldwins,  and  are  still  standing,  being  in 
many  cases  three  feet  in  diameter  and  nearly  forty  feet  high. 

In  Chautauqua  County  apple  growing  began  in  1805,  when 
Judge  Zatter  Gushing  moved  from  Paris  Hill  to  Fredonia  and 
brought  with  him  one-half  bushel  of  apple  seed.  From  this  he 
raised  trees  enough  to  set  a  twenty-acre  orchard,  containing  999 
trees.  Soon  afterward,  in  1897,  Elijah  Risley,  sr.,  came  to  Fre- 
donia from  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  introduced  several  other  varieties 
that  proved  superior  to  those  brought  by  Judge  Gushing. 

In  the  north-central  part  of  the  state,  very  little  attention  is 
given  to  apple  growing.  The  earliest  trees  were  planted  in  Lewis 
County  in  1805  by  settlers  from  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut, 
but  these  produced  practically  all  the  apples  in  this  section  before 
1850.  About  this  time,  and  for  many  years  after,  large  numbers 
of  trees  from  the  nurseries  of  western  Xew  York  were  planted, 
but  very  few  survived.  The  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Tolman  Sweet 
are  about  all  that  are  left  of  these  plantings. 


INTKOIHCTIOX  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA  755 

The   Work  of  Patrick  Barn/ 

Up  to  the  present  time  we  have  touched  only  that  phase  of  apple 
culture  in  western  New  York  that  was  made  by  the  early  settlers. 
Their  efforts  were  individual  and  scattered,  not  collected  and 
systematic.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  through 
the  influence  primarily  of  Patrick  Barry  of  Rochester,  apple 
growing  in  western  Xcw  York  began  a  new  epoch.  It  was  the  time 
when  scattered  efforts  were  being  systematized,  individual  strug- 
gles made  collective,  and  apple  growing  began  its  new  career  on  a 
commercial  scale. 

Patrick  Barry  was  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1816.  He  came 
to  America  at  the  age  of  twenty  and  after  four  years  of  service  with 
the  Prince's  at  Flushing,  Long  Island,  founded  in  1840  with 
George  Ellwanger  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  the  Mount  Hope  Nurseries. 
Klhvanger  and  Barry  introduced  fruit  growing  into  western  New 
York  at  a  time  when  there  were  no  railroads  nor  telegraphic  facili- 
ties, nor  any  fast  ocean  steamers  to  bring  over  their  importations 
from  Europe.  Mr.  Barry  did  much  to  make  Rochester  a  city  of 
nurseries  and  western  New  York  a  famous  fruit-growing  region. 
The  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society,  of  which  he  was 
president  for  more  than  thirty  years  and  until  his  death,  has  long 
exercised  more  than  sectional  influence.  The  work  of  Mr.  Barry 
was  truly  national  and  essentially  that  of  a  pioneer.  It  is  of  inter- 
est to  state  that  the  work  so  ably  inaugurated  by  him  has  been 
continued  by  his  son,  William  Barry,  who  succeeded  his  father 
as  president  of  the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society, 
a  position  that  he  still  holds. 

APPLESEED    JOHN    AND    THE   APPLE    IN    THE    WEST 

The  story  of  the  spread  of  the  apple  westward  is  not  unlike 
that  of  the  history  of  its  introduction  into  the  New  England 
Colonies  and  New  York  State.  At  first  it  was  scattered  in  the  west 
by  Indians  and  the  earliest  pioneers.  Chief  among  the  latter 
was  Johnny  Appleseed,  an  eccentric  character  who  carried  ap- 
pleseeds  into  the  wilds  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  and  sowed  them 
broadcast  between  the  years  1801  and  1847.  He  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1775,  and  his  real  name  was  Jonathan  Chapman.  For 
forty-six  years  he  roamed  the  wilderness,  sometimes  clad  only 


756  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

in  a  coffee  sack,  remaining  unharmed  by  snakes,  Indians,  and 
wild  animals,  and  at  the  same  time  showing  a  like  respect  for 
them.  In  many  frontier  cabins  he  read  aloud  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment and  the  teachings  of  Swedenborg,  and  his  coming  was  every- 
where welcomed.  During  his  lifetime  he  saw  his  apple  trees 
bearing  fruit  over  a  territory  of  100,000  acres.  Pruning  and 
grafting  he  believed  to  be  wicked,  but  his  early  work  did  much 
to  advance  the  apple  industry  in  the  west.  Headers  of  this 
bulletin  who  are  interested  in  his  work  will  enjoy  reading  the 
"  Quest  of  John  Chapman,"  by  Rev.  Xewell  Dwigku  Hillis,  D.  D., 
a  novel,  in  which  the  leading  character  is  Johnny  Appleseed. 

HISTORY    OF    CERTAIN    WELL-KXOWX    VARIETIES 

The  history  of  the  origin  and  propagation  of  some  of  the  best- 
known  varieties  in  Xew  York  State  is  most  interesting,  and  is 
deserving  of  mention  when  we  consider  how  much  the  apple  has 
done  for  our  state. 

Baldwin. —  Perhaps  no  other  apple  deserves  a  higher  place 
among  its  fellows  than  does  the  Baldwin,  and  certainly  no  other 
apple  has  so  molded  the  fortunes  of  fruit  growers.  There  are 
several  accounts  of  its  origin  and  introduction,  one  of  which  was 
written  in  1835,  by  Rufus  Kettredge  of  Portsmouth,  Mass.,  for 
the  Horticultural  Magazine.  It  reads  in  part  as  follows :  "  The 
original  tree  grew  on  the  farm  of  my  grandfather,  Mr.  John  Ball, 
formerly  of  Tewksbury,  Mass.  The  farm  was  situated  one  and 
one-half  miles  south  of  the  Merrimac  River,  and  three  miles  south- 
east of  Lowell.  *  *  *  My  father,  the  late  Dr.  Benjamin 
Kettredge  of  Tewksbury  *  *  *  said  that  it  was  not  en- 
grafted, as  no  person  at  that  time  in  Tewksbury  was  acquainted 
with  grafting ;  that  it  was,  to  use  his  expression,  '  the  mother  of 
them  all.'  This  apple  was  confined  to  that  neighbor- 

hood for  many  years  when  the  late  Colonel  Baldwin  of  AYoburn 
became  acquainted  with  it."  The  Country  Gentleman,  May  27, 
1880,  gives  the  following  rather  different  account:  "Mr.  Chas. 
Brooks  says  the  first  tree  grew  on  the  hillside  within  two  rods 
of  the  former  Woburn  line  on  the  farm  of  Mrs.  Thompson. 
Around  its  trunk  the  woodpecker  had  drilled  circles  of  holes,  and 
from  this  peculiarity,  the  apples  were  called  Peckers.  Colonel 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  AIM-U-:   I.\T<>  A.MKRICA  757 


FIG.  198. —  GRANITE  SHAFT  COMMEMORATING  THE  BALDWIN  APPLE  ix 
THE  TOWNSHIP  OF  WILMINGTON,  MASSACHUSETTS.  ERECTED  BY  THE 
RUMFORD  HISTORICAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  WOBURN,  MASS. 

(Courtesy  of  Professor  F.  C.  Sears,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College, 

Amh&rst,  Mass.) 


758  THE  FEUIT  INDUSTRY  i^  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Baldwin  in  passing  the  woodpecker  tree  when  a  hoy  was  attracted 
by  its  tempting  red  apples,  and  years  .afterward  took  some  of  the 
scions  from  the  tree  to  a  public  nursery  for  propagation,  from 
which  circumstance  they  received  his  name.  The  original  tree 
was  destroyed  in  a  violent  gale  in  September,  1815." 

There  are  still  further  traditions  regarding  the  discovery  of  the 
tree,  but  all  agree  on  the  fact  that  it  was  brought  into  promi- 
nence by  Colonel  Baldwin.  Of  recent  years  the  Rumford  His- 
torical Association  of  Woburn  has  erected  a  granite  shaft  on  the 
spot  where  the  Baldwin  was  discovered. 

'  Northern  Spy. —  The  Spy  originated  on  the  farm  of  Heman 
Chapin  in  the  town  of  East  Bloomfield,  where  he  settled  about 
the  year  1800.  From  Connecticut  apple  seeds  he  raised  his  trees, 
which  were  grafted  to  standard  varieties,  and  in  this  orchard  the 
Northern  Spy  originated.  Ellwanger  and  Barry,  nurserymen  of 
Rochester,  procured  buds,  and  through  them  the  apple  was  first 
disseminated. 

King  of  Tompkins  County. —  The  Tompkins  County  King  origi- 
nated in  the  orchard  of  Mr.  Harrison  in  Essex  County,  Xew 
Jersey,  and  was  named  by  Mr.  Letts  the  King  apple.  Mr.  Letts 
moved  to  Tompkins  County  in  the  year  1800,  and  in  1806  pro- 
cured some  scions  from  his  favorite  tree,  a  number  of  which  he 
set  for  Jacob  Wycoff  of  Jacksonville,  town  of  L'lysses,  and  the 
remainder  for  himself.  Those  he  set  for  himself  died  within  the 
year,  as  did  also  the  original  tree  in  Xew  Jersey.  Only  one  of 
the  scions  set  for  Mr.  Wycoff  lived,  and  thus  one  graft  was  left 
to  fill  the  world  with  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  best  apples 
known. 

Rhode  Island  Greening. —  The  locality  of  the  origin  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Greening  is  considerably  disputed,  but  the  best 
evidence  indicates  that  it  originated  in  the  state  of  Rhode  Island, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Newport,  where  in  olden  times  a  tavern-keeper 
by  the  name  of  Green  raised  apple  trees  from  seed.  Scions  of 
one  of  the  trees  that  produced  a  particularly  good  apple  were 
in  such  demand  by  guests  at  the  tavern  that  the  tree  died  from 
exhaustion.  Another  Greening  tree,  which  is  supposed  by  some 
to  be  the  original  tree,  still  stands  in  the  town  of  Foster  at  Mt. 
Hygeia.  It  has  borne  fruit  uninterruptedly  until  within  the  last 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  APPLE  INTO  AMERICA  759 

few  years  and  must  be  nearly  200  years  old.  There  are  also 
authentic  records*  of  other  old  Greening  trees  that  are  at  least 
150  years  old.  This  fruit  has  always  been  a  favorite  in  New 
York  State.  Although  we  do  not  know  the  facts  of  the  history 
of  its  introduction,  it  is  certain  that  it  had  become  widely  dis- 
seminated in  New  York  during  the  eighteenth  century. 


FIG.  199. — ANCIENT  RHODE  ISLAND  GREENING 
TREE.  AMOTT  200  YEARS  OLD,  THAT  STOOD 
IMIL  RECENTLY  IN  TOWN  OF  FOSTER,  R.  I., 
NEAR  HYGEIA 

(Fro»t   If ailcy's  "New  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horti- 
culture."    Courtesy,  The  Macmillan  Company.) 

MONUMENTS    TO    ORIGINAL    VARIETIES 

During  recent  years  fruit  growers  of  this  region  have  shown 
a  desire  to  preserve  even  the  most  fragmentary  data  relative  to 
the  early  orchards  planted  in  this  country  by  the  first  settlers 
from  the  Old  World,  and  in  several  instances  they  have  mani- 
fested their  appreciation  of  the  struggle  that  our  forefathers  en- 
dured in  establishing  our  Nation  in  prosperity  and  fruitfulness, 
by  erecting  monuments  on  the  spot  where  certain  of  our  choicest 
varieties  of  apple  trees  originated.  We  have  already  referred  to 
the  granite  shaft  erected  in  1895  by  the  Kumford  Historical  As- 
sociation of  Woburn,  Mass.,  to  the  Baldwin  apple,  and  have  in- 
formation of  another  unveiled  to  the  Mclntosh  Eed  by  the  far- 
mers of  Dundas  County  at  Dundela,  Ontario,  Canada,  in  1912. 
The  origin  of  the  Wealthy  apple,  a  leading  variety  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  is  likewise  commemorated  bv  a  tablet  dedicated  in 


*  Apples  of  New  York,  Vol.  I,  p.  286. 


760  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  o  NEWT  YORK  STATE 

1912  to  the  memory  of  Peter  M.  Gideon,  of  Excelsior,  Minnesota. 
In  our  own  state  there  exist  two  such  acknowledgments  of  our 
debt  to  the  past  and  our  gratefulness  for  Nature's  bounty,  con- 
cerning which  the  following  information  is  found  in  Bailey's 
Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  together  with  sketches  of 
the  monuments  in  question :  "  The  first  tab]et  in  New  York  State 
in  memory  of  any  apple  was  erected  in  the  towrn  of  Camillus, 
Onondaga  County,  on  the  original  site  of  the  Primate  apple  tree. 
John  T.  Koberts,  Syracuse,  on  September  11,  1903,  caused  a 
bronze  tablet  to  be  erected  there.  On  this  tablet  is  the  following 


FIG.  200. —  BLOCK  OF  GRANITE  COMMEMORAT- 
ING THE  WEALTHY  APPLE  ON  BOULEVARD 
LEADING  TO  MINNETONKA  BEACH,  NEAR  EX- 
CELSIOR, MINNESOTA 

The  following  inscription  appears  on  the  bronze 
tablet :     "  This     tablet     commemorates     Peter     M. 
Gideon  who  grew  the  original  Wealthy  apple  tree 
from  seed  on  this,  his  homestead,  in  1846.   Erected 
by  the  Native  Sons  of  Minnesota,  June,  1912." 
(From  Bailey's  "Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture.  " 
Courtesy,  The  Macmillan  Company.) 

inscription:  (  On  this  farm  Calvin  D.  Bingham,  about  1840,  pro- 
duced the  marvelous  Primate  apple,  named  by  Charles  P.  Cowles. 
God's  Earth  is  full  of  love  to  man.' 

"A  second  marker  was  erected  in  New  York  in  1912  to  the 
Northern  Spy,  Early  Joe  and  Melon  apples,  at  Bloomfield,  by  the 
Ontario  County  Fruit-Growers'  Society,  with  the  following  tablet : 
'  The  original  Northern  Spy  apple  tree  stood  about  14  rods  south 
of  this  spot,  in  a  seedling  orchard  planted  by  Herman  Chapin 
about  1800.  The  Early  Joe  and  Melon  apples  also  originated  in 
this  orchard.'  " 


THE  APPLES  OF  NEW  YORK 

PROFESSOR  S.  A.  BEACH 
Horticulturist,  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ames,  Iowa 

(Formerly  horticulturist  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
and  author  of  "The   Apples  of   Xt'\v   York.") 

Apples  constitute  the  most  important 
fruit  crop  of  the  Empire  State.  They  are 
grown  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  nearly 
all  of  the  farming  regions  from  Montauk 
Point  to  the  Niagara  liiver  and  from 
Kouses  Point  to  Chautauqua  Lake.  They 
are  found  on  nearly  every  farm  and  also 
about  many  of  the  homes  in  the  smaller 
cities,  towns,  villages  and  suburban  dis- 
tricts. Every  year  they  yield  a  delicious, 
appetizing  and  healthful  article  of  food 
for  all  classes  of  people  at  moderate  ex- 
pense, and  at  the  same  time  give  to  a  large  percentage  of  the  agri- 
cultural population  profitable  employment  for  capital  and  labor, 
and  to  the  state  a  desirable  diversification  of  its  agricultural  in- 
dustries. 

New  York  is  unexcelled  in  the  abundance,  variety,  and  excel- 
lence of  the  apples  which  it  produces.  If  all  the  apple  trees  of 
New  York  were  wiped  out  of  existence  so  that  the  people  would 
be  compelled  to  secure  their  supplies  of  this  fruit  from  other 
states  and  from  foreign  countries,  apples  would  become  a  high- 
priced  luxury.  New  Yorkers  would  then  begin  to  appreciate  as 
never  before  this  queen  of  fruits,  and  the  place  which  it  fills  in 
their  agricultural  and  domestic  economy.  But  with  apples  so 
common  as  they  now  are,  their  real  worth  is  altogether  too  lightly 
esteemed. 

The  constant  increase  of  population,  the  development  of  trans- 
portation and  other  facilities,  with  the  more  general  adoption  of 
improved  methods  of  grading,  picking  and  marketing,  may 
naturally  be  expected  to  result  in  a  constantly  increasing  demand 
for  good  New  York  apples  at  remunerative  prices.  A  survey  of 

[761] 


762  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  iJS'  NEW  YORK  STATE 

the  orchards  of  the  state  indicates  that  many  of  the  bearing  trees 
have  passed  their  prime  and  that  each  year  their  number  grows 
less.  It  is  questionable  whether  for  many  years  to  come  the 
decrease  in  the  number  of  bearing  trees  will  not  be  greater  than 
the  increase  in  orchard  planting.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
under  right  methods  of  orchard  management  and  with  the  proper 
selection  of  varieties,  the  planting  of  commercial  orchards  offers 
an  attractive  investment  for  the  New  York  fruit  grower. 

The  question  as  to  what  varieties  to  plant  is,  therefore,  one  of 
perennial  interest.  It  shall  be  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to 
sketch  briefly  the  various  pomological  districts  of  New  York 
State  with  particular  reference  to  the  varieties  of  apples  which 
have  come  to  be  recognized  in  each  as  desirable  for  commercial 
planting.  Brief  mention  will  also  be  made  of  the  kinds  that  ai-e 
suitable  for  the  home  orchard  or  local  market. 

WESTERN    ^EW  YORK 

The  most  important  apple  region  of  the  state  is  that  which 
extends  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie  south- 
ward to  the  Pennsylvania  line.  Its  eastern  border  includes  the 
counties  in  which  are  located  the  cities  of  Oswego,  Syracuse, 
Auburn,  Ithaca,  and  Elmira.  The  more  elevated  portions  may  be 
regarded  as  the  northward  extension  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau 
and  for  convenience  will  here  be  designated  as  the  Western  Plateau 
of  New  York  State.  This  descends  into  the  less  elevated  region 
which  includes  the  Central  Lakes,  sometimes  called  the  Finger 
Lakes,  and  the  middle  of  the  Genesee  Valley.  Westward  is  the 
plain  of  the  Erie  shore  and  northward  the  plain  of  the  Ontario 
shore. 

According  to  the  last  LTnited  States  census  report,  this  western 
New  York  region  includes  about  GO  per  cent  of  the  bearing  apple 
trees  found  in  New  York  State,  and  in  the  census  year  of  1909 
it  yielded  68  per  cent  of  the  apple  crop  of  the  state,  or  approxi- 
mately 17,308,000  bushels,  out  of  a  total  of  25,409,000  bushels. 
The  region  along  the  Lake  Ontario  shore,  lying  between  the  Os- 
wego River  on  the  east  and  the  Niagara  on  the  west,  leads  in  the 
relative  amount  of  land  devoted  to  apple  growing  and  also  in  the 
yield  of  apples  as  compared  with  its  total  area.  In  1909  it  pro- 
duced approximately  eleven  million  bushels  of  apples.  Next  in 


THE  APPLES  OF  XEW  YOKK 


763 


764  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

rank  comes  the  Central  Lake  and  Genesee  region,  followed  closely 
by  the  Erie  Plain,  while  last  in  importance  are  the  counties  which 
form  the  eastern  and  southern  border  of  the  western  New  York 
region  as  above  outlined.  The  accompanying  map  shows  the  dis- 
tribution of  bearing  apple  trees  in  this  and  other  portions  of  New 
York.  Each  dot  represents  10,000  trees. 

Leading  Varieties 

Among  the  varieties  grown  in  western  New  York  the  Baldwin 
stands  far  in  the  lead.  Probably  more  of  this  fruit  is  put  upon 
the  market  than  of  all  other  apples  put  together.  Rhode  Island 
Greening  ranks  second.  These  two  varieties  supply  not  less  than 
two-thirds  of  the  apples  produced  in  western  New  York.  In  fact 
the  same  may  be  said  for  the  entire  state.  Third  in  general  im- 
portance comes  Northern  Spy.  Among  others  worthy  of  mention 
as  commercial  varieties  are:  Tompkins  King,  Roxbury,  Golden 
Russet,  Hubbardston,  Nonesuch,  Twenty  Ounce,  Pumpkin  Sweet 
or  Pound  Sweet,  Fall  Pippin,  Maiden  Blush,  Mclntosh,  and 
Duchess  of  Oldenburg.  The  value  of  these  kinds  for  commer- 
cial planting  in  western  New  York  is  not  problematical.  It  has 
been  thoroughly  demonstrated  by  years  of  experience. 

Generally  speaking,  those  who  contemplate  planting  commer- 
cial orchards  in  this  region  would  best  not  go  outside  of  this  list 
for  their  selections  without  giving  the  subject  very  careful  con- 
sideration. For  local  or  for  special  markets,  or  in  special  locali- 
ties, other  kinds  might  be  found  equally  satisfactory.  Among 
those  worthy  of  consideration  in  this  connection  may  be  named 
such  old  kinds  as  Alexander  and  Wealthy  for  fall,  Black  Gilli- 
nower,  Ben  Davis  and  its  sports  Gano,  and  Black  Ben  Davis, 
Westfield  Seek-No-Further,  Tolman  Sweet,  Swaar,  and  Rome 
Beauty;  and  among  newer  sorts  Delicious,  King  David,  and  the 
highly  colored  types  of  Twenty  Ounce  known  as  Collamer  and 
Hitchings. 

It  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  that  Delicious  is  a  sufficiently 
reliable  cropper  to  be  profitable  for  commercial  planting  in  New 
York.  Its  high  dessert  flavor  doubtless  would  insure  for  it  good 
market  prices.  King  David  has  not  as  yet  made  a  reputation  in 
market  and  its  orchard  characteristics  have  not  been  proven  in 


THK  APPLES  OF  NEW  YORK  765 

New  York  State.  When  well  grown  it  is  a  beautiful  apple,  but 
it  is  rather  sharply  flavored.  Koine  Beauty  has  done  well  in 
certain  locations,  particularly  on  the  lighter  loams,  where  it 
takes  on  good  color  and  is  of  good  size,  fair  and  smooth.  Its 
foliage  often  suffers  injury  from  scab.  The  tree  is  an  early  and 
reliable  cropper;  the  fruit  has  an  established  reputation  in  mar- 
ket, and  keeps  well,  but  is  inferior  in  quality  to  Baldwin.  Koine 
Beauty  is  a  better  variety  for  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  South- 
ern Ohio,  and  corresponding  regions  than  it  is  for  general  plant- 
ing in  western  New  York. 

The  list  from  which  selections  may  be  made  for  amateur  pur- 
poses, for  home  use,  and  under  special  conditions  for  commercial 
orchard  planting,  may  be  enlarged  so  as  to  include  Yellow  Trans- 
parent, Primate,  Early  Harvest,  Early  Joe,  Early  Strawberry, 
Red  June,  and  Bough  Sweet  for  summer;  Late  Strawberry,  also 
known  as  Autumn  or  Fall  Strawberry,  Gravenstein,  Chenango 
Strawberry,  Golden  or  York  Pippin  for  fall ;  Esopus  Spitzen- 
burg,  Norton  Melon,  Hyde  King,  Bailey  Sweet,  Lady  Sweet, 
Sweet  \Vhiesap  or  Hendrick  Sweet,  and  Jacob  Sweet  for  winter. 

EASTERN    NEW   YORK 

In  eastern,  as  in  western  New  York,  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  and  Northern  Spy  are  the  leading  commercial  varieties, 
with  the  Spy  here  showing  a  relatively  higher  rank  than  it  does 
in  the  western  districts.  Other  kinds  of  importance  are  Hub- 
bardston,  Esopus  Spitzenburg,  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  Green 
Newtown  Pippin,  Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty,  Dutchess  of  Olden- 
burg, Gravenstein,  Maiden  Blush,  and  Ben  Davis.  Prospective 
planters  in  eastern  New  York  would  do  well  to  confine  their 
selections  principally  to  three  or  four  kinds  selected  from  the 
list  just  given.  It  is  recognized,  however,  that  on  account  of 
the  advantage  of  proximity  to  large  markets  it  may  often  be 
profitable  to  grow  a  greater  variety  with  approximately  more  of 
summer  and  fall  apples  in  some  parts  of  this  region  than  would 
be  generally  advisable  in  other  regions  more  remote  from  market 
or  from  good  transportation  facilities. 

The  newer  varieties  mentioned  in  the  western  New  York  list 
may  be  put  on  trial  in  eastern  New  York,  but  the  conservative 


766  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

fruit  grower  will  not  plant  them  largely  until  their  value  for 
this  particular  region  has  been  more  fully  proven. 

LONG   ISLAND 

Long  Island  has  the  climatic  conditions  of  a  low  coastal  plain. 
Its  lighter  sandy  or  sandy  loam  soils,  especially  when  overlying 
sandy  or  gravelly  subsoils,  are  not  well  adapted  to  commercial 
apple  growing.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  apple  thrives 
best  where  there  is  a  noticeable  admixture  of  clay  in  the  loam  or 
in  the  subsoil,  or  both.  On  such  soils,  apples  thrive  on  Long 
Island. 

Leading  Varieties 

The  varieties  named  for  the  Hudson  Valley  generally  do  well 
on  Long  Island.  Such  kinds  as  the  Newtown  Pippin,  which 
originated  here;  Esopus  Spitzenburg  and  its  daughter  Jonathan, 
both  of  which  originated  011  the  Hudson ;  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
which  had  its  origin  in  Rhode  Island ;  Maiden  Blush,  which  hails 
from  New  Jersey ;  Rome  Beauty,  Grimes  Golden,  Red  Astrachan, 
Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  and  Yellow  Transparent  —  are  all  worthy 
of  consideration  in  making  up  a  planting  list  for  the  Long  Isl- 
and commercial  orchard.  The  list  may  be  extended  for  home 
orchards  or  for  amateur  purposes  so  as  to  include  other  kinds  of 
peculiar  merit  for  either  culinary  or  dessert  use;  such  as,  Bullock 
or  American  Golden  Russet,  Long  Island  Russet,  Black  Gilliflower, 
Collamer  Twenty  Ounce,  Hitchings  Twenty  Ounce,  Bough  Sweet, 
Pumpkin  Sweet,  Lady  Sweet,  Jersey  Sweet,  Fall  Pippin,  Jacob 
Sweet,  Summer  Queen,  Gravenstein,  Delicious,  Winter  Banana, 
Opalescent,  and  Yellow  Bellflower. 

NORTHERN    NEW    YORK 

The  northern  New  York  region  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
the  Mohawk  Valley  district.  It  includes  the  Northern  Plateau 
with  the  Adirondack  Mountains  and  their  foothills,  in  each  of 
which  are  found  the  lower  lying  valleys  of  the  Upper  Hudson 
and  of  Lake  Champlain,  while  to  the  north  and  west  lies  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  Lake  Ontario.  Northern 
New  York  includes  the  highest  and  coldest  districts  of  the  state, 


THE  APPLES  OF  NEW  YORK  767 

where  none  but  the  very  hardiest  apples  and  crab  apples  should 
be  planted.  In  such  locations  the  list  from  which  selection 
should  be  made  includes  such  crab  apples  as  the  Hyslop,  Trans- 
cend ant,  Martha,  Whitney,  and  Gibb,  and  the  hardiest  of  apples 
such  as  Hibernal,  Antonovka,  and  the  best  of  the  hybrids  which 
liavo  been  originated  by  the  Central  Experiment  Farms,  Ottawa, 
Canada.  Hibernal  is  of  value  only  as  a  kitchen  apple.  It  is 
perhaps  the  hardiest  large-fruited  apple  known  to  American 
pomology.  Antonovka,  when  fully  ripe  and  mellow,  would  be 
classed  good  for  dessert  use;  for  culinary  use  it  is  decidedly 
superior  to  Wealthy.  It  is  hardier  than  Wealthy  in  tree  and 
ripens  a  little  earlier.  The  tree  is  a  reliable  cropper.  It  deserves 
to  be  planted  more  frequently  in  the  colder  districts  of  the  state 
both  for  home  use  and  for  local  market. 

In  those  parts  of  northern  New  York  where  the  climate  is  less 
severe,  the  list  for  commercial  planting  should  include  Yellow 
Transparent,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg  and  its  daughters  Okebena 
and  Dudley,  for  late  summer  and  early  fall ;  Alexander,  Wolf 
River,  Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Mclntosh,  and  Canada  Baldwin  for 
autumn  and  early  winter.  Brilliant  should  be  put  on  trial  for 
both  commercial  and  home  use.  The  list  for  the  home  orchard 
should  include  such  hardy  sorts  as  Blue  Pearmain,  Westfield 
Seek-No-Further,  Nodhead,  Bethel,  Oel  Austin,  Windsor,  Ma- 
linda  and  Tolman  Sweet.  For  the  lower  elevations  along  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Ontario, 
where  commercial  orcharding  is  less  hazardous  than  it  is  in  the 
colder  districts  which  we  have  been  considering,  the  list  for  com- 
mercial planting  may  include  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Wealthy, 
Fameuse,  and  Mclntosh,  with  Brilliant  for  trial;  and  in  espe- 
cially favored  localities,  Northern  Spy,  Westfield  Seek-No-Fur- 
ther, and  also  possibly  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island  Greening,  where 
top-worked  on  such  hardy  stocks  as .  Northern  Spy  or  Tolman 
Sweet. 

The  residents  of  northern  New  York  would  do  well  to  keep  in 
touch  with  the  splendid  work  in  breeding  hardy  apples  for  north- 
ern regions  that  is  being  conducted  by  the  Canadian  government 
at  its  experiment  farms.  Information  concerning  the  results 
that  have  already  been  secured  in  this  work  may  readily  be 


768  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

obtained  by  addressing  Professor  W.  T.  Macoun,  Dominion  Hor- 
ticulturist, Ottawa,  Canada. 

Description  of  most  of  the  varieties  named  in  this  article  may 
be  found  in  the  two-volume  work  entitled,  "  The  Apples  of  Xew 
York  "  published  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Albany, 
and  in  the  excellent  bulletins  by  Professors  U.  P.  Hedrick  and 
O.  M.  Taylor,  and  their  associates,  which  have  been  issued  by  the 
State  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva,  Xew  York. 


SOIL  TYPES  FOR  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 
H.   J.  WILDER 

State  Relations  Service,  U.  S.   Department  of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  J).  (.'. 
GEXEKAL     SOIL     SELECTION 

In  choosing  a  soil  for  planting  an  apple 
orchard  there  are  certain  general  charac- 
teristics that  are  of  fundamental  import- 
ance for  all  varieties,  and  these  should  be 
considered  before  trying  more  specifically 
to  select  soils  particularly  well  adapted  to 
the  different  varieties. 

The  soil  should  be  deep  and  well  drained 
for  all  tree  fruits,  and  for  apples,  at  least, 
it  should  also  be  productive  or  capable  of 
being  made  productive  economically.  The 
soil  may  be  deep  and  well  drained  without 

being  sandy.    Good  loams,  for  example,  may  be  not  only  deep  and 
well  drained,  but  also  productive. 

The  presence  of  unbroken  rock,  large  ledges,  or  hardpan,  within 
three  feet  of  the  surface,  should  be  considered  prohibitive.  A  soil 
depth  of  at  least  six  feet  is  highly  desirable,  soils  with  the  under- 
lying rock  too  near  the  surface  having  been  responsible  not  in- 
frequently for  the  failure  of  commercial  orchards  in  some  sections 
of  the  country.  The  injury  from  shallow  subsoils  is  due  primarily 
to  the  incapacity  of  the  subsoil,  on  account  of  its  limited  volume, 
to  store  sufficient  moisture  for  the  needs  of  the  trees  when  droughty 
conditions  prevail,  or  to  get  rid  of  excess  moisture  quickly  enough. 
Some  subsoils  devoid  of  stones  are  so  clayey  in  texture  or  stiff  in 
structure  that  drainage  is  very  inferior.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
soils  and  subsoils  of  favorable  texture  and  structure  have  been 
selected,  the  presence  of  loose  stones  in  the  subsoil  in  distinction 
from  underlying  rock  does  no  harm  unless  sufficiently  numerous 
to  interfere  appreciably  with  the  upward  capillary  movement  of 
the  soil  moisture.  But  when  soils  have  been  advantageously 
selected  with  reference  to  their  textural  and  structural  adaption 

[769] 


770  TJIE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   -XEW   YORK  STATE 

to  fruit  trees,  there  is  no  virtue  in  the  presence  of  stones,  popular 
opinion  as  often  expressed  notwithstanding. 

The  not  uncommon  statement  that  stones  conserve  moisture  in 
the  soil  because  it  condenses  on  their  under  surface  is  somewhat 
misleading,  for  the  amount  so  condensed  is  not  sufficient  to  lessen 
either  the  cultivation  or  the  mulching  necessary  in  these  respective 
methods  of  orchard  management.  In  neglected  orchards  where 
neither  cultivation  nor  efficient  mulching  is  practiced,  stones 
doubtless  assist  a  little  in  conserving  moisture. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  hillsides  and  slopes  from  which 
surface  drainage  is  adequate,  or  even  too  rapid,  may  have  very 
inferior  subsoil  drainage.  This  condition  is  not  infrequently  found 
in  Xew  York,  particularly  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  where 
the  Volusia  silt  loam  prevails,  or  wherever  there  is  bed  rock  of 
shale.  With  care  it  is  usually  possible  to  avoid  such  sites  for 
orchards.  If  water  seeps  out  to  the  surface  on  the  lower  part  of 
a  slope,  caution  should  be  observed.  Often  the  upper  part  of  a 
slope  is  much  better  drained  than  the  lower  part. 

The  term  hardpan  is  in  common  use  to  designate  a  subsoil  con- 
dition which  delays  the  ready  percolation  of  moisture.  Its  com- 
mon use,  however,  has  led  to  marked  misunderstanding  —  at  least 
in  the  eastern  states  —  as  it  unfortunately  includes  everything 
ranging  from  true  hardpan  to  a  clay  loam,  which  may  constitute 
a  desirable  subsoil  for  orchard  purposes.  A  true  hardpan  con- 
sists, not  of  a  subsoil  containing  sufficient  clay  to  make  it  retentive 
of  moisture,  but  of  a  mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  silt,  and  clay,  with 
more  or  less  cementing  material  which  so  binds  these  ingredients 
together  that  the  movement  of  soil  moisture  either  downward  or 
upward  is  seriously  impeded ;  or,  a  hardpan  may  consist  of  a  thin 
layer  of  material  matter  formed  by  deposition  of  salts  of  iron, 
lime  or  other  minerals  in  solution  after  the  formation  of  the  soil 
or  during  the  process.  Such  conditions  within  several  feet  of  the 
surface  are  very  undesirable.  The  percentage  of  such  hardpan 
areas  is  not  great.  It  is  probable  that  they  may  be  remedied  by 
dynamite  used  in  sufficient  quantities  to  break  up  the  hardpan 
effectively,  this  to  be  followed  and  supplemented  by  the  use  of 
deep-rooted  leguminous  cover  crops  to  keep  the  shattered  hardpan 
friable,  but,  until  the  price  of  naturally  good  orchard  land  in 


SOIL  TYPES  FOII  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  771 

the  East  is  much  higher  than  now,  it  is  unquestionably  better 
economies  to  select  soils  which  do  not  need  the  dynamite  treat- 
ment to  render  them  lit  for  planting  fruit  trees.  Where  the  sub- 
soil is  impervious  in  an  orchard  already  planted,  and  drainage  con- 
sequently defective,  tile  drains,  though  involving  considerable  ex- 
pense, are  the  best  remedy.  Evaporation  of  excess  moisture  may 
also  be  increased  by  non-cultivation  or  by  transpiration  through 
growing  a  crop.  Conversely,  if  the  soil  tends  to  dry  out  too 
quickly,  cultivation  should  be  frequent,  and  a  good  supply  of 
humus  should  be  maintained  to  conserve  the  moisture.  While  such 
manipulation  of  method  to  suit  the  circumstances  in  the  individual 
orchards  should  constantly  be  made  use  of,  it  has  its  limitations 
and  does  not  at  all  do  away  with  the  desirability  of  selecting  the 
soils  best  adapted  to  the  individual  variety;  namely,  those  soils 
which  will  require  a  minimum  of  manipulation  to  effect  the  best 
soil  environment. 

Detailed  study  shows  that  in  highly  developed  localities  where 
climate,  transportation  facilities  and  local  markets  are  the  same, 
the  different  varieties  of  apples  are  usually  not  equally  well 
grown  on  all  soils,  and  consequently  that  a  given  variety  of  com- 
mercial worth  is  not  necessarily  of  equal  desirability  for  all 
growers  or  all  soils  in  the  same  locality.  Descriptions  of  soils 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  certain  varieties  follow. 

RHODE    ISLAND    GKEENING    SOILS 

A  surface  soil  of  heavy  silty  loam  or  light  silty  clay  loam  with 
similar  subsoil  excels  for  the  "  green  "  Rhode  Island  Greening. 
Such  soil  will  retain  sufficient  moisture  to  be  classed  as  a  moist 
soil,  yet  is  not  so  heavy  as  ever  to  be  ill-drained,  if  surface  drain- 
age is  adequate.  The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich  in  organic 
matter.  In  the  region  where  this  apple  is  commercially  grown, 
such  soils  are  generally  grayish  rather  than  brownish  in  color,  but 
this  characteristic  does  not  always  follow.  A  medium  to  heavy 
friable,  well-oxidized,  brown  loam,  with  subsoil  of  same  character 
or  a  little  heavier,  is  more  favorable  to  a  moderate  blush,  and  in 
New  England  gives  a  good  quality  of  fruit  for  all  purposes  except 
the  commercial  market. 

In  the  Germantown  District,  of  Columbia  County,  where  heavy 


772  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

soils  predominate,  fifteen  years  is  usually  given  as  the  age  at 
which  this  variety  comes  into  bearing;  but,  in  the  Kinderhook 
section  of  sandy  soils  at  the  north  end  of  the  county,  ten  years  is 
the  estimate.  Yet  there  is  much  more  enthusiasm  in  growing 
Greening  in  the  locality  of  heavy  soils,  and  many  more  are  being 
planted  than  where  the  sandy  soils  prevail,  notwithstanding  its 
later  bearing  on  the  former. 

In  a  number  of  excellent  commercial  orchards  that  sell  Green- 
ings from  sandy  soils,  both  in  the  Hudson  Valley  and  along  Lake 
Ontario,  it  was  found  on  checking  conditions  at  harvest  time  that 
the  ability  to  sell  such  fruit  was  due  solely  to  picking  the  apples 
while  still  so  immature  that  the  objectionable  yellowing  had  not 
had  time  to  develop,  and  even  then  a  yellow  blush  was  rapidly 
developing.  In  some  cases  in  1913,  the  fruit  was  picked  long 
before  it  had  reached  full  size.  It  is  common  practice  on  sandy 
soils  to  try  to  hold  off  yellowing  by  continued  cultivation,  in- 
creasing the  supply  of  organic  matter,  or  even  by  applying  nitrog- 
enous fertilizer. 

Limited  space  forbids  the  description  of  results  in  any  number 
of  individual  orchards,  but  a  characteristic  one  in  Ontario  County 
may  be  mentioned.  On  heavy  loam,  silt  loam,  and  silty  clay  loam 
surface  soils  with  subsoils  of  about  the  same  texture,  Rhode  Island 
Greening  acquires  good  size  and  matures  with  green  color  — 
thus  meeting  the  general  market  requirements  —  and  it  is  profit- 
able. On  the  same  soils  Baldwin  is  deficient  in  color,  even  though 
tile  drains  have  been  installed  for  a  period  of  several  years.  This 
is  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  tile  drains  are  not  sufficient  to 
make  a  typical  Greening  soil  equally  well  adapted  to  the  Baldwin. 

In  a  northeast  Monroe  County  orchard,  fruit  on  heavy  soil  is 
very  green  if  picked  at  the  customary  time  for  the  neighborhood. 
The  owner  will  not  pick  when  immature,  however,  but  leaves 
them  on  the  trees  until  most  people  harvest  Baldwins.  On  his 
heavy  soil  this  can  be  done  without  any  great  loss  from  dropping, 
but  by  leaving  them  so  late  some  blush  appears.  Such  fruit  is  of 
good  quality,  keeps  very  late,  and  is  less  subject  to  scald  than 
when  picked  immature.  On  sandy  soil  it  has  to  be  picked  while 
immature  to  prevent  dropping,  and  this  brings  it  into  the  late  fall 
apple  class. 


SOIL  TYPES  FOR  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  773 

The  primary  demand  of  the  New  York  market  is  still  for  Rhode 
Island  Greening  u  as  green  as  grass/7  and  leading  dealers  and 
commission  men  there  state  that  "  any  means  or  factor  which  will 
give  them  a  Greening  of  such  color,  that  is  larger,  nearer  maturity, 
and  that  can  be  picked  later,  is  greatly  to  be  desired."  Late 
maturing  or  clayey  soils  certainly  help  to  this  end. 

BALDWIN    SOILS 

The  best  Baldwin  soils  consist  of  heavy  fine  sandy  loams,  and 
light  mellow  loams,  underlain  by  deep  subsoils  ranging  from 
plastic,  light  clay  loam  to  heavy  silt  loam.  The  soils  should  be 
well  oxidized,  the  brown  and  yellow  colors  being  more  satisfactory 
than  the  gray. 

Light  sands  give  a  high  color  to  Baldwin,  but  on  them  the 
fruit  matures  early  and  in  most  years  tends  to  be  undersized. 
Plenty  of  humus  helps  to  overcome  this,  but  it  should  not  be  sup- 
plied through  too  great  amounts  either  of  stable  manure  or  of 
green  crops  plowed  down  in  any  one  year.  No  more  manure 
should  be  applied  at  one  time  than  will  become  thoroughly  disin- 
tegrated and  incorporated  with  the  soil  in  one  year.  If  applied 
in  too  great  amounts  the  soil  may  be  made  more  droughty  the  first 
year;  but  moderate  annual  applications  increase  the  moisture- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soils,  and  thus  slightly  defer  the  maturity 
of  crops. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  plowing  under  of  cover 
crops,  which  should  never  be  done  unless  the  soil  is  sufficiently 
moist  to  cause  their  ready  decay.  Otherwise  they  may  form  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  a  barrier  to  the  upward  movement  of  the 
capillary  moisture.  If  the  soil  is  dry  the  cover  crop  should  be 
mowed  and  left  to  serve  as  mulch  until  rains  come  to  moisten  the 
soil  deeply.  If  it  is  then  too  late  in  the  season  for  plowing  to  be 
advisable,  this  should  be  deferred  until  the  following  spring. 

Heavy  silt  loams  and  clay  loams  are  not  favorable  to  high 
color  on  Baldwin,  and  in  some  sections  of  New  York  are  to  a 
considerable  degree  responsible  for  fruit  with  poor  color.  Such 
fruit  may  keep  well  but  it  does  not  appear  attractive  on  the 
market.  Tile  drains  and  heavy  cover  crops  to  reduce  the  soil 
moisture  afford  some  alleviation  to  this  condition. 


774  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

NORTHERN  SPY  SOILS 

The  soil  requirements  of  Northern  Spy  are  more  exacting  than 
with  many  other  varieties  and  apparently  are  best  supplied  by  a 
medium  loam  underlain  by  a  heavy  or  light  clay  loam  —  that  is, 
a  soil  as  heavy  as  can  be  selected  without  incurring  the  danger  of 
inferior  drainage,  for  a  poorly  drained  soil  should  never  be  used. 
It  should  not  be  planted  on  a  soil  lighter  than  a  very  heavy  fine 
sandy  loam  underlain  by  a  light,  friable  clay  loam,  or  possibly  a 
heavy  loam,  and  the  soil  should  be  deep.  Good  air  drainage  and 
good  elevation  are  also  very  essential  with  Northern  Spy. 

On  light  sandy  soils  Spy  usually  has  excellent  color,  but  the 
fruit  tends  to  soften  early.  Not  infrequently,  on  the  Lake  Plain 
in  Western  New  York,  Spy  is  said  to  do  well  on  sandy  soils,  but 
in  most  cases  of  this  kind  a  stratum  of  heavy  soil  is  found  within 
three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface,  which  gives  the  soil  a  much 
greater  moisture-holding  capacity  than  is  possessed  by  a  deep 
sand. 

IIUBBARDSTON    SOILS 

A  rich,  fine,  sandy  loam  soil,  with  subsoil  of  similar  texture, 
excels  for  the  Hubbardston.  A  subsoil  containing  enough  clay  to 
make  the  fine  sandy  material  somewhat  coherent,  or  sticky,  is  not 
objectionable;  but  there  should  never  be  enough  clay  present  to 
render  the  subsoil  heavy. 

SUTTON     SOILS 

Sutton  should  be  grown  on  soils  as  described  for  the  Hubbards- 
ton. The  trees  have  so  much  less  bearing  surface  than  more  vigor- 
ous growing  sorts  such  as  Baldwin,  or  even  its  sister  variety,  the 
Hubbardston,  that  the  yield  is  relatively  low,  and  few  continue  to 
plant  it.  If  it  is  to  be  sold  to  advantage,  special  marketing  also 
is  often  necessary. 

MCINTOSII   SOILS 

For  this  variety,  soils  ranging  from  heavy,  sandy  loam  to 
medium  loam  with  subsoil  of  light,  friable  clay  loam  seem  to  give 
the  best  results.  If  good  size  is  to  be  maintained  on  sandy  soils 
in  dry  seasons,  a  plentiful  supply  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil  is  necessary. 

Jonathan,  Tompkins  King,  and  Grimes  are  all  grown  to  ad- 
vantage on  mellow  medium  loam  with  subsoil  of  friable  loam. 
Jonathan  needs  excellent  care  with  heavy  fertilization,  and  will 


SOIL  TYPES  FOR  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  775 

stand  good  applications  of  stable  manure.  With  all  these  condi- 
tions supplied,  it  has  given  excellent  results  in  some  cases. 
Tompkiiis  King  readily  succumbs  on  low  moist  ground,  and  it  has 
rarely  proved  satisfactory  on  its  own  stock,  the  opinion  prevail- 
ing that  it  should  be  top-worked  on  Northern  Spy  or  Tolman. 
With  ordinary  care  Grimes,  as  well  as  Jonathan,  is  undersized, 
and  should  not  be  planted  as  a  commercial  sort.  With  intensive 
methods,  however,  satisfactory  size  is  secured,  and  in  one  orchard 
in  the  Hudson  Valley  the  fruit  was  large  in  the  season  of  1913. 

TWENTY    OUNCE    SOILS 

On  deep  sandy  loams  or  very  light  friable  loams  with  subsoils 
not  heavier  than  light  friable  loams,  the  Twenty  Ounce  is  most 
successful.  On  the  Ontario  Plain  it  is  also  well  grown  on  light, 
sandy  loams  and  fine  sands  which  have  been  kept  well  supplied 
with  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

OLDENBURG,  WEALTHY,  AND  WAGENER  SOILS 

For  Oldenburg,  heavy  sandy  loams  and  very  light  mellow 
loams  with  subsoil  of  sandy  loam  have  given  good  results.  For 
Wealthy  the  same  soils  are  desirable,  though  the  subsoil  may  also 
be  a  little  heavier  loam.  Even  then  the  variety  usually  needs 
thinning.  Both  these  soils  are  suitable  for  Wagener,  but  they 
should  be  in  even  more  productive  condition  than  is  essential  for 
Oldenburg  or  Wealthy.  On  account  of  its  weak  growing  habit, 
the  tree  is  quickly  affected  by  droughty  conditions;  hence,  a 
plentiful  supply  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  is 
essential. 

BEN    DAVIS    SOILS 

This  variety  has  usually  been  highly  profitable,  but  many  are 
fearful  of  future  markets  for  it ;  and,  as  several  other  varieties  of 
better  quality  are  nearly  as  profitable,  few  commercial  growers 
seem  now  ready  to  plant  more  Ben  Davis,  except  to  fill  in  blocks 
of  orchard  where  the  soil  or  drainage  is  unfavorable.  For  this 
latter  purpose  it  is  frequently  used,  and  its  tendency  to  bear 
annually  more  than  most  varieties  is  a  point  in  its  favor.  Deep 
and  well-drained  soils  favor  a  high  color  of  Ben  Davis  apples,  as 
well  as  other  red  varieties ;  but,  as  Ben  Davis  is  grown  for  quan- 
tity rather  than  quality,  poor  color  possibly  detracts  less  from  its 
sale  price  than  with  some  other  sorts. 


TILLAGE 

W.  H.  CHANDLER 
Professor  of  Research  in  Pomology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Experimental  evidence  and  practical  ex- 
perience point  strongly  to  the  conclusion 
that  under  nearly  all  circumstances  the 
best  method  of  handling  an  orchard  soil  is 
by  a  combination  of  annual  tillage  with  a 
cover  crop.  There  may  be  marked  excep- 
tions under  special  conditions,  and  results 
of  some  brief  experiments  indicate  that 
other  methods  of  handling  the  soil  may 
give  equally  good  results ;  but,  until  these 
results  are  fortified  by  further  experience, 
it  seems  wise  to  advise  the  use  of  tillage 
combined  with  a  cover  crop  in  nearly  all  cases. 

Concerning  the  methods  of  tillage  and  the  seasons  when  tillage 
gives  best  results,  or  when  failure  to  cultivate  would  do  the  least 
harm,  and  when  the  cover  crop  should  be  sown,  there  is  less 
positive  evidence.  Yet,  from  some  practical  experience  and  from 
our  knowledge  of  tree  growth,  it  seems  safe  to  advise  that  the 
time  of  plowing  the  land  in  the  spring  and  the  time  of  sowing  the 
cover  crop,  should  be  earlier  than  is  the  common  practice.  If 
any  treatment  that  is  expected  to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  tree 
is  to  have  great  influence  during  the  current  season,  that  treatment 
must  be  given  early,  because  tree  growth  takes  place  during  the 
early  part  of  the  season.  It  is  certain  that  conditions  for  growth 
during  the  first  two  or  three  months  of  the  growing  season  deter- 
mine the  size  of  leaves  on  any  but  the  very  youngest  trees.  In 
many  cases,  where  a  cover  crop  is  plowed  under,  say  in  June,  it 
will  be  difficult  to  observe  any  good  effect  from  that  plowing  upon 
the  current  season's  growth.  This  is  particularly  true  in  a  soil 
that  is  not  retentive  of  moisture. 

If  the  soil  is  plowed  very  early  in  the  spring,  it  is  obvious  that 
there  can  be  little  spring  growth  of  the  cover  crop.  It  will  be 
necessary,  therefore,  to  sow  the  cover  crop  early  enough  that  it 
will  make  sufficient  growth  before  winter.  Then,  in  some  cases, 

[77G1 


TILLAGE 


777 


it  is  well  to  have  the  cover  crop  sown  early  in  order  that  its 
competition  with  the  trees  in  the  soil  may  insure  earlier  maturity. 
The  tree  may  thus  be  in  better  condition  to  survive  a  severe 
winter.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  the  competition  of 
this  cover  crop  may  possibly  at  times  so  reduce  the  moisture 
supply  as  to  interfere  with  the  largest  development  of  the  fruit. 
Under  New  York  conditions,  however,  it  is  probable  that  this 
would  not  happen  very  often.  This  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
later. 

KINDS  OF  COVER  CROP 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  go  deeply  into  the  sub- 
ject of  cover  crops,  but  only  to  discuss  them  in  their  relation  to 


FIG.  202. —  COVER  CROP  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  PEACH  ORCHARD  OF  J.  H.  TEATS' 
SONS,  WILLIAMSON,  N.  Y. 

tillage.  However,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  a  few  of  the  better 
cover  crops,  as  well  as  some  of  the  requirements  for  a  good  cover 
crop. 

The  chief  purposes  of  a  cover  crop  are,  to  supply  humus  when 
plowed  under,  and,  by  its  growth  in  the  soil,  to  reduce  the  moisture 


778  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

supply  late  in  the  season  and  check  the  growth  of  the  trees,  insur- 
ing satisfactory  maturity.  Any  crop,  therefore,  that  can  be  sown 
as  late  as  July  1  to  August  20,  and  wrill  yet  make  a  reasonably 
good  growth  before  time  to  plow  it  under  the  following  spring, 
may  be  considered  useful  as  a  cover  crop.  Some  of  the  crops  that 
may  be  expected  to  make  a  good  growth  during  the  summer  and 
autumn  seasons  are:  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  oats  and  Canada  peas; 
buckwheat,  or  a  mixture  of  buckwheat  and  Canada  peas;  dwarf 
essex  rape;  cowhorn  turnips.  It  is  of  some  advantage  to  have  the 
cover  crop  live  through  the  winter,  since  it  wrill  then  remove 
moisture  from  the  soil  somewhat  rapidly  in  the  spring  and  make 
it  possible  to  plow  the  ground  earlier  than  could  otherwise  be 
done.  Among  the  crops  most  satisfactory  from  this  standpoint 
are :  rye ;  winter  vetch ;  and,  in  some  cases,  crimson  clover.  Dwarf 
essex  rape  will  sometimes  live  through  the  winter. 

It  is  also  an  advantage  if  the  cover  crop  be  one  t)f  the  legumes, 
so  that  it  may  furnish  nitrogen  as  well  as  humus  to  the  soil.  Per- 
haps winter  vetch  may  be  mentioned  as  the  most  satisfactory  cover 
crop  of  this  type.  The  only  important  objection  to  it  is  the  cost 
of  the  seed,  but  this  may  be  grown  by  the  orchardist.  Red  clover 
is  coming  to  be  used  to  a  large  extent  in  parts  of  New  York. 
Canada  peas  may  also  be  mentioned  in  this  class.  Crimson  clover 
is  sometimes  used  successfully,  though  it  is  very  often  a  failure 
and  will  not  usually  be  satisfactory  north  of  New  Jersey. 

Soil  conditions  are  important  determining  factors  in  choosing 
a  cover  crop.  Thus,  dwarf  essex  rape  seems  to  make  about  the 
best  growth  on  a  very  heavy  soil.  Crimson  clover  can  generally 
be  expected  to  grow  successfully  only  in  sandy  soil.  Winter  vetch, 
rye,  Canada  peas,  and  oats  are  satisfactory  for  a  very  great  variety 
of  soils.  Red  clover  does  not  give  satisfactory  results  in  an  acid 
soil,  so  some  growers  find  that  it  is  best  to  use  lime  in  order  to 
get  a  good  cover  crop  of  red  clover,  even  though  the  trees  may  not 
show  much  response  to  the  use  of  lime. 

RELATION   OF   TILLAGE   TO  WINTER  INJURY 

Since  the  nature  and  time  of  tillage  would  generally  influence 
so  markedly  the  condition  of  growth,  it  would  be  expected  also  to 
influence  greatly  the  amount  of  winter  injury.  It  should  be  said 


TILLAGE 


779 


that,  taking  this  state  as  a  whole,  the  amount  of  winter  injury  is 
rather  largo.  It  is  true  that  the  amount  of  winter  injury  or  the 
number  of  trees  killed  or  injured  in  an  orchard  is  likely  to  be 
rather  sum  11  in  any  one  year.  However,  when  a  few  trees  are 
injured  each  year,  or  every  two  or  three  years,  it  does  not  take  long 
for  enough  to  be  injured  to  reduce  greatly  the  yield  of  the  orchard. 
There  are  very  many  forms  of  winter  injury  to  be  observed  in 
this  .slate;  in  fact,  the  prevailing  type  of  injury  is  likely  to  be 
different  on  almost  every  year.  Some  of  the  most  common  forms 


l'i<;.  -0;>. —  ('OVERCROP  OF  RED  CLOVER,  WITH  THE  WILD  GRASS  THAT  NECES- 
SARILY (Juows  AITER  CULTIVATION  CEASES,  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD  OF  MR.  F.  W. 
CORNWALL,  PULTIVEYVILLE,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  Cornwall  practices  very  early  plowing  in  the  spring,  sometimes  begin- 
ning to  plow  before  all  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  He  then  sows  his  cover 
crop  late  in  June  or  early  in  July. 

are:  killing  back  of  twigs;  killing  of  small  areas  of  tissue  in  the 
bud  so  that  the  starting  of  the  bud  is  often  delayed,  even  when  the 
bud  is  not  killed ;  killing  around  the  base  of  the  tree  just  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  or  even  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In 
practically  all  of  these  forms  of  killing,  except  in  the  colder  por- 
tions of  the  state,  the  condition  of  the  tree  as  it  goes  into  winter 
seems  to  determine  the  amount  of  injury.  If  the  tree  has  ceased 
growth  and  the  wood  has  become  firm  rather  early,  then  the  danger 


780 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


from  winter  injury  is  greatly  reduced.  In  many  cases  the  last 
tissue  to  reach  this  condition  of  maturity  is  that  just  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  a 
weak  growth  necessarily  insures  great  hardiness.  If  the  tree  has 
made  a  very  weak  growth  during  the  early  portion  of  the  season 
and  this  is  followed  by  rather  wet  weather  during  the  latter  por- 
tion, then  the  tree  is  likely  to  start  a  late  succulent  growth  that 


FIG.  204. —  BUCKWHEAT  AS  A  COVER  CROP  IN  A  YOUNG  PEAR 
ORCHARD  BELONGING  TO  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  POMOLOGY,  NEW 
YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

The  buckwheat  was  sown  on  June  29.  Pear  trees  are  pecu- 
liarly susceptible  to  early  winter  injury.  In  spite  of  the  very 
wet  season,  these  trees  are  going  into  winter  with  the  wood  very 
well  ripened  on  account  of  the  early  sowing  of  the  cover  crop. 

will  leave  it  very  tender  when  winter  comes  on.  Vigorous  growth 
early  in  the  season  —  in  the  case  of  any  but  the  very  youngest  trees, 
at  least  —  is  a  protection  against  such  late  succulent  growth.  When 
the  tree  has  made  a  vigorous  early  growth  it  is  likely  to  have  leaf 
surface  enough  to  dispose  of  the  extra  supply  of  water  late  in  the 
season  without  causing  renewed  growth.  This  is  particularly  true 


TILLAGE  781 

if  the  cover  crop  is  sown  curly  to  assist  in  using  the  extra  supply 
of  moisture.  Briefly,  then,  the  means  by  which  the  tree  can  be 
brought  into  winter  in  the  hardiest  condition  are,  to  have  an  early 
growth,  such  as  would  likely  follow  early  plowing  under  of  the 
cover  crop  in  the  spring,  with  a  cover  crop  sown  early  enough  so 
that  its  competition  will  insure  the  tree  against  excessive  growth 
late  in  the  season.  If  the  soil  is  plowed  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring  and  the  cover  crop  is  sown  in  July,  it  is  very  probable  that 
more  growth  will  be  secured  than  if  both  be  done  a  month  later. 
Yet,  with  the  early  plowing  and  early  sowing  of  the  cover  crop, 
one  can  be  much  more  certain  that  the  wood  will  be  well  ripened 
for  winter. 

CULTIVATION   OF   YOUNG  TREES 

In  the  case  of  a  very  young  orchard,  it  is  generally  wise  to  grow 
an  intercrop  —  a  crop  to  be  harvested  from  between  the  trees. 
The  cultivation,  then,  will  be  partially  determined  by  the  nature 
of  the  intercrop.  If  the  orchard  is  growing  in  a  section  where 
it  is  possible  to  make  good  profits  from  the  intercrop,  it  may  even 
be  wise  to  sacrifice  to  some  extent  the  best  interests  of  the  tree  for 
the  intercrop.  However,  in  most  cases,  the  general  principle  sug- 
gested above  should  be  followed ;  namely,  cultivation  should  begin 
early  in  the  season  to  insure  vigorious  early  growth,  and  growth 
should  be  checked  by  some  means,  either  by  the  intercrop  itself 
or  by  means  of  a  cover  crop  later  in  the  season.  For  this  reason 
the  intercrop  should  be  one  that  requires  cultivation,  but  does  not 
make  it  necessary  to  work  the  soil  near  the  tree  late  in  the  season. 
It  is  evident  that  there  will  be  soils  and  conditions  where  this 
principle  may  be  ignored. 

TILLAGE  OF  YOUNG  ORCHARDS  JUST   COMING  INTO   BEARING 

It  is  generally  true  that  a  few  fruits  may  be  expected  from  a 
weak  tree  younger  than  from  a  vigorous  tree ;  however,  it  is  nearly 
always  true  that  a  profitable  crop  will  be  secured  more  quickly 
from  the  tree  that  has  been  encouraged  to  make  a  vigorous  growth 
from  the  beginning.  The  fruit  is  likely  to  be  borne  on  the  spurs 
that  form  earliest  in  the  season.  There  is  a  great  tendency  for 
the  bloom  to  fall  without  setting  fruit  or  for  the  young  fruits  to 


782 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW   YORK  STATE 


fall  from  the  trees  just  coming  into  bearing.  It  seems  to  be  true 
that  the  older  spurs  will  hold  their  fruit  the  following  spring 
better  than  the  ones  that  formed  late  in  the  season.  It  is  also  true 
that  these  trees  just  coming  into  bearing  are  still  likely  to  grow 
late  enough  so  that  there  is  danger  of  early  winter  injury.  For 
these  reasons,,  then,  it  seems  particularly  wise  that  the  system 
outlined  above,  of  early  plowing  and  of  early  sowing  of  the  cover 
crop,  should  be  followed.  In  fact,  during  the  first  fe\v  years 


FIG.    205.— A  YOUNG  APPLE   ORCHARD   BELONGING   TO  THE  DEPARTMENT   OF 
POMOLOGY,  NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  ITHACA,  X.  Y.,  WITH 
DWARF  ESSEX  RAPE  SOWN  JULY  19  AS  A  COVER  CROP 
In  this  heavy  soil  the  rape  has  probably  made  more  growth  than  could  hav^e 

been  expected  from  any  other  crop. 

after  an  intercrop  ceases  to  be  grown  in  the  orchard,  it  would 
seem  wise  to  sow  a  cover  crop  early  in  July  in  any  but  the  lighter 
soils.  By  this  means,  not  only  will  the  humus  supply  of  the  soil 
be  kept  up  to  the  best  advantage,  but  the  trees  will  go  into  winter 
in  the  hardiest  condition  and  will  likely  be  brought  into  conditions 
of  growth  more  favorable  to  early  fruiting. 

TILLAGE   OF  BEARING  ORCHARD 

In  case  of  the  bearing  orchard,  the  importance  of  early  plowing 
in  the  spring  is  as  great  as  with  trees  at  other  ages.     It  is  possible 


TILLAGE 


783 


that  the  importance  of  sowing  the  cover  crop  early  is  not  so  great, 
for  the  tree  is  almost  sure  to  ripen  its  wood  sufficiently  before 
winter.  The  only  advantage,  then,  of  the  early  sowing  of  the 
cover  crop  would  be  that  a  larger  supply  of  humus  can  be  kept  in 
the  soil,  since  it  is  possible  to  get  a  larger  amount  of  growth  in 
the  cover  crop.  It  is  also  possible  to  use  such  crops  as  clover  for 
a  cover  crop  when  they  arc  sown  early.  I  may  say  that  some 


Fro.  20(5. —  COVKR  CROP  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  A  THIRTY-TIIREE-YEAR-OLD  ORCHARD 

BELONGING  TO  MR.  F.  W.  CORNWALL,  PULTNEYVILLE,  N.  Y. 
With  these  trees  Mr.  Cornwall  gets  very  satisfactory  annual  crops.  The 
practice  of  early  plowing  and  early  sowing  of  the  cover  crop  is  following  here 
as  with  the  young  orchard.  Mr.  Cornwall  thinks  this  is  one  of  the  important 
reasons  for  the  excellent  results  he  has  secured  with  this  orchard  since  he  took 
charge  of  it. 

experience,  even  in  the  lighter  soils,  indicates  that  when  the  cover 
crop  is  sown  as  early  as  July  1,  the  trees  remain  in  a  thrifty  con- 
dition throughout  the  season.  Whether  the  fruit  would  be  larger 
if  cultivation  were  continued  later,  I  am  not  in  a  position  to  say 
but  I  know  of  orchards  tilled  in  this  way  where  the  fruit  averages 
larger  than  in  most  orchards  in  the  same  section. 


784          THE    FRUIT    INDUSTRY    ix    XEW    YORK    STATE 

TILLAGE   IX    RENOVATING   AX    OLD   ORCHARD 

The  importance  of  early  plowing  in  the  spring  is  particularly 
great  in  the  case  of  an  old  orchard  that  has  not  been  plowed  during 
previous  years.  If  the  trees  have  been  making  a  very  weak 
growth,  and  are  plowed  late  in  the  spring,  there  is  danger  of  their 
starting  a  late  succulent  growth  that  will  result  in  injury  around 
the  base  of  the  tree.  Then,  if  the  soil  is  plowed  very  early,  marked 
invigorating  effects  may  be  observed  the  first  year  the  orchard  is 
plowed,  while  this  may  not  be  true  if  the  plowing  is  not  done  early. 
In  fact,  if  the  soil  is  not  so  light  that  there  is  danger  of  root 
freezing,  it  is  perhaps  wisest  to  plow  in  the  fall  the  orchard  that 
has  been  in  sod.  In  that  case  the  maximum  benefit  from  tillage 
during  the  first  year  may  be  secured.  In  a  very  light  gravelly 
or  sandy  soil,  if  by  any  chance  the  conditions  should  be  such  that 
the  roots  are  not  deep,  it  is  sometimes  unwise  to  have  the  ground 
plowed  in  the  fall.  The  fall-plowed  soil  will  freeze  deeper  and 
there  may  be  danger  of  root  killing. 

CONCLUSION 

The  above  suggestions  are  not  intended  to  be  rules  that  may 
be  followed  in  all  cases  —  in  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  make  such 
suggestions  for  fruit  growing.  There  may  be  many  cases  when  a 
very  different  procedure  will  be  wiser,  but  it  is  certainly  true  that 
generally  the  tree  will  go  into  winter  in  a  more  hardy  condition, 
and  the  nature  of  its  growth  will  be  that  best  adapted  to  steady 
fruiting,  if  its  growth  is  vigorous  during  the  early  season  and  is 
checked  during  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  Generally,  in  sec- 
tions as  far  north  as  this,  such  conditions  of  growth  can  be  brought 
about  more  satisfactorily  when  a  cover  crop  is  plowed  under  very 
early  in  the  spring  and  another  cover  crop  is  sown  between  July  1 
and  August  10.  Some  growers  sow  their  cover  crops  as  early 
as  June  20.  If  there  are  no  orchards  in  the  section  where  very 
early  plowing  is  practiced,  perhaps  it  would  be  wise  to  take 
August  1  as  a  standard  time  for  sowing  and  to  experiment  with 
earlier  sowing. 


COVER   CROPS 
R.  D.  ANTHONY 

Associate    Horticulturist,    New    York    Agricultural    Ivxpcriinent    Station, 

Geneva,  X.  Y. 

Cover  crops  in  the  fruit  plantation  are 
those  which  are  sown  after  the  spring  cul- 
tivation with  the  intention  of  plowing  them 
under  in  the  fall  or  spring.  In  most 
orchards  the  use  of  cover  crops  should  be 
regarded  as  a  necessary  complement  to  the 
cultivation  —  a  fact  far  too  often  over- 
looked. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    USE 

The  prime  use  of  cover  crops  is  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  food  for  the  fruit 
crops.  The  clay  loam  soils  of  our  fruit 

regions  contain  large  amounts  of  the  necessary  plant  food  elements, 
but  usually  these  are  in  an  insoluble  form  and  hence  unavailable  to 
plants,  which  must  feed  on  the  nutrients  dissolved  in  the  soil 
water  that  is  constantly  being  absorbed  by  the  roots  and  passed  on 
to  the  leaves  —  the  stomach  of  the  plant.  Our  problem  is  so  to 
treat  these  elements  that  they  become  soluble  and  therefore  avail- 
able as  plant  food.  If  we  drop  a  small  piece  of  limestone  into 
a  weak  acid  it  soon  disappears,  partly  by  the  formation  of  gas 
and  partly  by  dissolving  in  the  acid.  The  soil  water  is  normally 
slightly  acid  and  can  dissolve  limestone  in  the  same  way,  thus 
making  the  water  "  hard."  The  insoluble  plant  food  elements 
can  be  broken  down  similarly  by  an  acid  soil  water  and  thus 
become  available. 

The  acidity  of  the  soil  water  is  largely  due  to  the  acids  which 
are  formed  when  organic  matter  decays.  Therefore,  the  first 
essential  in  soil  fertility  is  to  insure  the  presence  in  the  soil  of 
a  liberal  supply  of  humus  —  the  name  used  for  decaying  organic 
matter.  For  the  fruit  grower  there  is  no  better  way  of  securing 
humus  than  by  the  plowing  under  of  vigorous  cover  crops. 

[785] 


786  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   NEW  YORK  STATE 

The  presence  of  humus  in  the  soil  has  a  very  important  bear- 
ing upon  its  physical  condition.  When  the  supply  of  organic 
matter  becomes  low,  our  clay  soils  are  stiff  and  difficult  to  work, 
and  they  puddle  and  bake  easily.  Those  rich  in  humus  have 
better  drainage,  can  be  plowed  earlier,  remain  in  plowed  con- 
dition longer,  and  in  every  way  are  easier  to  handle. 

Plants  utilize  only  the  moisture  which  surrounds  the  soil  par- 
ticles. When  the  roots  reach  the  level  of  the  ground  water,  where 
the  air  has  been  driven  out,  their  activities  cease.  Unless  the 
soil  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  retentive  of  this  moisture,  plants 
may  suffer  from  drought,  even  in  seasons  of  normal  rainfall. 
Humus  is  like  a  sponge  in  its  power  to  retain  moisture,  and 
its  presence  in  the  soil  greatly  increases  the  amount  of  water 
available  to  the  plant. 

Only  in  one  way  do  cover  crops  add  to  the  total  amount  of 
any  one  plant  food  element  in  the  soil,  and  that  is  through  the 
nitrogen-fixing  activities  of  the  bacteria  which  are  usually  found 
on  the  roots  of  the  legumes.  When  non-leguminous  cover  crops 
are  used,  the  available  food  supply  may  be  increased,  but  not  the 
total  amount  of  the  food  elements. 

The  conservation  of  plant  food  is  another  valuable  function 
of  cover  crops.  Every  spring  our  rivers  and  creeks  carry  down 
to  the  lowlands  and  the  lake  bottoms  immense  deposits  of  silt 
which  the  rains  have  washed  from  the  fields.  These  minute 
particles  of  soil  are  the  ones  which  are  most  readily  acted 
upon  by  the  acid  soil  water,  and  hence  their  loss  from  our 
fields  is  a  serious  loss  of  plant  food.  Nothing  checks  this  soil 
washing  in  the  orchards  so  effectively  as  the  mat  of  rootlets 
supplied  by  a  good  cover  crop.  The  breaking  down  of  soil  par- 
ticles, with  the  resulting  formation  of  soluble  plant  food,  goes 
on  in  the  fall  and  spring  when  the  fruit  crops  are  in  a  dormant 
condition.  By  using  cover  crops  which  remain  alive  through  the 
winter,  much  of  this  plant  food  is  utilized  by  them  and  thus  pre- 
vented from  washing  away  in  the  drainage  water.  This  plant 
food  then  becomes  available  to  the  fruit  crops  when  the  corn 
crop  decays. 

The  intense  cultivation  given  to  orchards  is  a  forcing  process 
which,  if  continued  throughout  the  season,  would  result  in  a  late 


COVER  CROPS 


787 


788  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

growth  of  wood  that  would  not  have  time  to  mature  and  conse- 
quently would  be  very  liable  to  be  injured  during  the  winter. 
Seeding  down  a  cover  crop  in  the  summer  decreases  the  food  and 
moisture  available  to  the  trees  and  thus  checks  this  growth  and 
matures  the  wood.  With  late-maturing  varieties  of  apples  which 
sometime  fail  to  attain  the  desired  high  jolor,  this  hastening  of 
the  maturity  is  very  important.  In  this  connection  the  character 
of  the  season  has  considerable  to  do  with  the  time  of  sowing  the 
cover  crop.  When  the  rainfall  is  light  and  the  growth  limited, 
the  time  of  seeding  can  be  delayed  until  late  in  July  or  even  the 
middle  of  August,  depending  upon  the  crop  and  the  location. 
When  the  rainfall  is  above  normal  and  trees  are  making  a 
vigorous  growth,  the  cover  crop  should  go  in  during  the  latter 
part  of  June  or  early  in  July. 


FIG.  208. —  MAMMOTH  CLOVER  IN  OCTOBER 

Land  unprotected  by  a  crop  during  the  winter  freezes  deeper 
and  is  more  liable  to  heave  than  if  protected.  For  this  reason 
tree  and  vine  roots  are  more  liable  to  be  injured  where  cover 
crops  are  not  used.  To  secure  this  winter  protection  and  as 
much  growth  as  possible,  it  is  best  to  plow  under  the  crop  in 
the  spring  rather  than  in  the  fall,  but  care  must  be  taken  that 
this  is  done  before  it  has  made  sufficient  growth  to  rob  the  fruit 
crop  of  plant  food  or  moisture. 

Trees  standing  in  a  heavy  cover  crop  over  winter  are  more 
liable  to  be  injured  by  mice.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to  keep 
the  cover  crop  at  least  two  feet  from  the  trunks. 


COVER  CROPS 


789 


790 


THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY   IN-  XEW   YORK  STATE 


There  are  two  general  types  of  cover  crops :  the  legumes,  or 
nitrogen-gathering  plants,  and  the  non-leguminous  sorts.  The 
following  belong  to  the  first  type. 

LEGUMINOUS   COVER   CROPS 

The  Clovers 

Ked  clover,  either  medium  or  mammoth,  is  the  popular  legumin- 
ous cover  crop  in  this  state.  On  poor  soils  —  especially  those 
which  are  acid  —  and  during  dry  seasons,  the  catch  is  poor  and 


FIG.  210. —  RYE  AND  WINTER  VETCH 

the  growth  small,  but  where  conditions  are  right  it  gives  an  ex- 
cellent cover.  Because  of  the  uncertainty  of  its  growth  it  is 
generally  used  in  combination  with  other  cover  crops.  Crimson 
clover  is  an  annual  which  is  not  quite  hardy  enough  for  most 
of  the  state  outside  of  the  southern  Hudson  Valley. 

The  Vetches 

There  are  two  kinds,  the  spring  and  the  winter  vetch.     It  is 
the  latter  which  is  used  as  a  cover  crop.     Within  recent  years 


COVER  CROPS  791 

this  has  become  very  popular.  It  will  grow  on  land  where  clover 
fails,  in  a  season  too  dry  for  clover.  It  grows  at  low  temperatures 
and  covers  the  ground  with  a  dense  mat.  If  left  too  long  in  the 
orchard  in  the  spring,  it  will  cause  a  serious  loss  of  moisture. 

Peas  and  Beans 

Cow  peas  and  soy  beans  are  used  extensively  in  the  south,  but 
are  not  hardy  arid  not  so  satisfactory  as  other  legumes  in  this 
state.  Canada  field  peas  have  been  used  to  some  extent  and  make 
a  satisfactory  combination  with  other  cover  crops,  but  they  can- 
not compete  with  the  more  popular  clovers  and  vetch. 

NON-LEGUMINOUS   COVER   CROPS 

The  non-leguminous  cover  crops  will,  in  general,  make  a  more 
satisfactory  growth  on  poor  soil  than  the  legumes;  hence  they  are 
much  used  as  a  means  of  building  up  the  poorer  soils  preliminary 
to  sowing  the  nitrogen  gatherers.  The  following  are  commonly 
grown  in  this  state. 

The  Grains 

Oats,  barley,  rye,  wheat,  and  buckwheat  are  all  used  in  vary- 
ing degrees.  Oats  make  a  satisfactory  early  growth  but  are 
killed  by  the  first  freeze,  so  they  find  their  best  places  in  com- 
bination with  other  crops.  Barley  is  also  killed  by  the  cold,  but 
it  usually  makes  a  good  growth  before  cold  weather,  live  is  the 
most  satisfactory  grain  to  use.  It  grows  at  a  low  temperature  and 
will  make  a  good  growth  on  soil  too  poor  for  clover.  It  should 
be  plowed  early  in  the  spring.  Wheat  is  not  so  good  as  rye, 
although  it  is  less  injurious  if  spring  plowing  is  long  delayed. 
Buckwheat  will  grow  on  poorer  soil  and  under  more  adverse  con- 
ditions than  any  of  the  above,  but  it  affords  very  little  cover  for 
the  winter.  It  should  be  an  important  part  of  all  mixtures  where 
the  land  is  at  all  poor. 

The  Crucifers 

Rape  and  turnips  do  not  give  sufficient  cover  when  used  alone, 
but  make  a  valuable  addition  to  mixtures  of  other  cover  crops. 


792  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


COVER  CROPS  793 

COMBINATIONS    OF    COYKR    CROPS 

N"o  one  crop  meets  nil  the  requirements  of  an  ideal  cover  crop; 
for  this  reason  it  is  always  best  to  use  a  combination.  The 
nature  of  the  combination  will  depend  on  the  soil  and  the  season. 
It  should  be  so  planned  as  to  give  quick  growth,  a  maximum 
amount  of  organic  matter,  winter  protection,  and  preferably 
should  contain  some  legume,  except  in  orchards  already  making 
too  vigorous  growth.  In  the  table  below  are  given  a  few  good 
mixtures. 

gCA-NTITV    OF    WKK»    1'KIt    ACRE 

Legumes  Non-nitrogenous  cover  crops 

Red  clover,   15-20   pounds  Oats,  2-3  bushels 

Crimson   clover,    15-20  pounds  Barley,  2-2%  bushels 

Hairy  vetch,  %-l  bushel  Rye,   l%-2  bushels 

Cow  peas,  l%-2  bushels  Wheat,  2-2%  bushels 

Soy  beans,  1-1%  bushels  Buckwheat,  1-1%  bushels 

Canada  field  peas,  2-3  bushels  Rape,  2-5  pounds 

Turnip,  4  pounds 

QUANTITY  OF   SEED   PER  ACRE  IN   MIXTURE 

Red  clover,   10  pounds  Buckwheat,  %  bushel 

Hairy  vetch,  15  pounds  Barley  or  oats,  1-1%  bushels 

Oats    %-l  bushel  Red  c  15_2Q  g 

CowhOTl,  turnips,  %  pound  fiarley  or  ^  ^  buahel8 

Buckwheat,  %  bushel 
Oats,  1  bushel 
Rye,  1  bushel 


INTERCROPPING    THE    YOUNG    ORCHARD  — FROM 
AN  ECONOMIC  STANDPOINT 


M.  C.  BURRITT,  ITHACA,  X.  Y. 

Director  New  York  State  Farm  Bureaus 

I  think  most  fruit  growers  will  agree 
with  me  that  the  principal  reason  they  are 
in  the  business  of  fruit  growing  is  to  get 
a  living  that  way.  I  presume  many  are 
in  the  business  of  fruit  growing  just 
because  they  like  it  —  because  it  is  an  en- 
joyable business;  but  certainly  a  prime 
motive  is  the  profits  they  may  gain  from 
this  enterprise. 

I  presume  many  older  men  who  have 
been  in  this  business  for  a  long  time,  and 
who  may  have  accumulated  a  considerable 

amount  of  profit  from  it,  are  not  so  much  interested  as  some  of  the 
younger  men  —  men  who  have  apple  orchards,  inherited  from  their 
fathers  at  a  time  when  the  business  was  profitable.  It  is  not  known 
just  how  much  those  orchards  cost.  Some  of  us  are  beginning  to 
find  out  how  much,  and  we  are  concluding  that  it  is  no  small 
amount  of  money.  Those  who  have  large  orchards  already,  and 
can  simply  take  the  profits  out  of  these  older  orchards  and  grow 
younger  orchards  with  them,  do  not  mind  the  cost  so  much ;  but 
the  younger  men  just  starting  out  find  themselves  up  against  a  very 
serious  problem  —  paying  expenses  as  they  go  along. 

There  is  complaint  nowadays  that  we  do  not  have  anything  to 
say  about  fixing  the  price  of  the  things  we  sell,  and  that  is  more 
or  less  true;  but  we  shall  not  put  ourselves  in  a  position  to  have 
anything  to  say  if  we  allow  misleading  statements  as  to  profits  to 
go  out.  The  average  New  York  Oity  man's  idea  of  farming,  and 
of  fruit  growing  particularly,  is  that  it  is  a  short  and  sure  road 
to  wealth.  We  are  primarily  to  blame  for  this.  What  leads  him 
to  believe  that  the  fruit  grower's  profits  are  so  large?  Tsually 
it  is  the  big  stories  of  profits  that  have  been  printed.  Professor 

[794] 


INTERCROPPING  THE  Yor.xr;  ORCHARD  705 

Hedrick  has  said  that  the  average  yield  in  the  Aucliter  orchard 
was  116  barrels  per  acre;  that  is  much  above  the  average  yield  of 
this  county.  The  average  yield,  as  shown  by  orchard  surveys, 
is  70  to  75  barrels  per  acre.  That  would  make  quite  a  big  differ- 
ence in  figuring  the  average  cost  of  production.  We  are  fixing  our 
ideas  from  figures  on  some  of  our  orchards  that  are  not  quite  rep- 
resentative of  the  average. 

The  average  cost  of  producing  our  barreled  apples  we  do  not 
know.  We  ought  to  know.  If  we  are  business  men  it  is  up  to  us 
to  find  out,  and  that  means  some  concerted  action.  It  will  be  much 
harder  for  us  to  find  out  what  it  costs  to  grow  farm  products  than 
it  is  for  the  merchant  to  find  out  the  cost  of  his  goods,  but  that 
is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  do  it.  We  are  falling  down  on 
the  business  end.  It  is  up  to  us,  it  seems  to  me,  to  take  some  steps 
to  obtain  accurate  records  on  a  large  number  of  farms  that  will 
establish  something  near  an  average  cost.  And  when  people  in  the 
city  are  educated  as  to  just  what  it  costs  to  grow  products,  these 
stories  of  big  profits  which  are  going  around  will  be  discounted. 

The  very  fact  that  the  subject  of  the  cost  of  milk  production*  is 
being  studied  is  having  a  very  wholesome  effect  on  the  market  at 
the  present  time,  and  that  will  tend  toward  0  higher  price  for 
milk.  We  can  do  the  same  thing  with  apples  and  hay  and  grain. 

WHAT  ENTERS  INTO  COST  OF  PRODUCTION 

There  are  three  general  things  that  enter  into  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. The  first  is  labor  —  man  and  horse ;  second,  the  raw 
materials  that  go  into  the  cost  of  that  production,  such  as  fer- 
tilizers and  manures,  cover  crops,  etc. ;  third,  the  fixed  charges, 
such  as  interest  on  the  investment,  taxes,  etc.  I  know  that  people 
say,  "  Well,  if  I  figured  business  that  way  I  would  not  make  a 
cent."  Does  figuring  really  make  any  difference  with  the  facts? 
They  are  there  just  the  same.  One  can  say  he  is  making  $200 
an  acre  from  apples  if  he  chooses,  but  he  is  not  gaming  anything 
by  it ;  he  is  rather  losing.  Corporations  are  always  exaggerating 
their  costs;  they  are  always  trying  to  prove  that  the  things  are 
costing  more  than  they  do.  The  cost  of  our  product,  in  too  many 
minds,  is  the  labor  hire  and  the  fertilizers  or  seed  bought.  That 


796 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


is  no  cost  at  all.  One  may  say  that  he  will  not  count  the  cost  of 
his  buildings,  or  telephone,  or  other  things,  but  all  these  items 
enter  in ;  they  are  there  just  the  same. 

Let  us  compare  the  cost  of  different  crops  —  Table  I.  Xotice 
how  the  labor  runs  up.  I  can  grow  an  acre  of  hay  for  l-S1/^  man- 
hours ;  an  acre  of  wheat,  26  man-hours;  beans.  43;  apples,  175. 
Horse  labor  runs  up  the  same  way,  but  not  in  the  same  proportion. 

TABLE  I 
COSTS  OF  PRODUCING  FARM  PRODUCTS 


PER 

ACRE 

FACTORS 

Hay 

Wheat 

Beans 

Apples 

Labor 
Man  hours  (20c.)  
Horse  hours  (15c.)  

13| 

14£ 

26 
43| 

43 

55i 

175 
66 

Cost  for  labor   

$4  90 

$11  72 

$16  88 

$45  00 

Materials 
Fertilizer 

$3  88 

$5  14 

Manure                                               .      .  . 

$2  86 

Cover  crop 

1  57 

Barrels  (78) 

28  13 

Spraying  material 

3  69 

Seed                             .    

$1  74 

1  92 

3  10 

Threshing                    

1  30 

82 

Total            

$1  74 

$7  10 

$9  06 

$36  25 

Other  and  fixed  charges 
Interest 

$5  00 

$5  00 

$5  00 

$15  00 

Taxes 

40 

40 

40 

1  19 

Equipment 

72 

1  71 

1  96 

6  38 

Overhead           ... 

52 

99 

1  86 

5  83 

Total  

$6  64 

$8  10 

$9  22 

$28  40 

Grand  total 

$13  28 

$26  92 

$35  16 

$109  65 

Of  course  these  prices  will  vary  on  different  farms.  Some 
men  can  handle  their  business  so  well  that  they  get  man  labor 
for  from  15  cents  to  18  cents  an  hour.  Horse  labor  varies  from  15 
cents  to  25  cents;  the  average  is  a  little  over  15  cents  an  hour. 
Every  time  I  take  a  team  out  of  the  barn  it  probably  costs  about 
30  cents  an  hour  for  that  team,  without  a  driver.  We  do  not 
always  think  of  this. 


INTERCROPPING  TIIK  Y<>r\<;  ()i;<  HAKD  797 

Note  the  total  cash  cost  here  —  $7.10  011  wheat,  $9.06  on  beans, 
$36  on  apples;  notice  too  that  the  fixed  costs  that  we  so  many 
times  ignore  are  a  very  important  part  of  it.  I  do  not  give  my 
figures  to  set  up  an  average;  these  must  be  determined  on  every 
farm.  I  have  merely  pointed  out  some  of  the  costs  that  enter 
into  production. 

VALUE    OF    INTERCROPS 

A  very  important  part  of  the  business  of  growing  an .  orchard 
of  a  bearing  ago  is  getting  the  money  to  do  it  with.  It  is  all  very 
well,  if  oiK1  has  an  old  orchard  paying  dividends,  to  put  it  in 


FIG.  212. —  BEANS  IN  THE  YOUNG  ORCHARD 

this  young  orchard- — that  is  his  privilege.  But  some  of  us  can- 
not do  it;  we  have  to  pay  our  way  as  we  go  along.  I  look  at 
the  intercrop  this  way:  all  the  profits  I  can  get  out  of  the  crop 
between  the  trees  are  so  much  gain.  I  have  that  much  less  in- 
vested in  the  orchard.  If  I  have  to  spend  ten  dollars  an  acre  per 
year,  and  if  I  can  get  five  dollars  out  of  the  crop,  I  am  just  so 
much  ahead.  Certainly,  it  is  an  advantage  to  lessen  the  wait  for 
returns.  Much  is  said  about  getting  profits  from  orchards  in  five 
or  six  years,  but  the  average  man  does  not  do  it.  We  are  more  apt 
to  set  our  standards  by  some  individual  who  has  been  especially 
successful.  Somebody  has  an  orchard  that  has  made  a  big  profit 
at  the  end  of  five  or  six  years.  That  is  noted  in  a  local  paper, 
which  goes  to  the  cities,  and  it  is  taken  by  the  public  as  an  aver- 
age. It  is  misleading.  On  an  average,  an  apple  orchard  does  not 


798  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY   IN   XEW  YORK  STATE 

pay  a  profit  under  ten  years,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  fifteen  years 
instead  of  ten. 

Furthermore,  the  growing  of  crops  between  trees  increases  the 
turn  over  of  labor  and  materials  on  a  farm.  Professor  Warren 
has  quite  conclusively  shown,  from  the  records  on  something 
like  3,500  farms  in  this  state,  that  the  large  business  is  the  most 
profitable.  You  can  sometimes  enlarge  a  farm  by  growing  two 
crops  on  the  same  land,  just  the  same  as  by  buying  more  land. 
If  you  can  grow  a  crop  of  cabbage,  beans  or  what  not  in  your 
young  orchard,  you  have  increased  the  size  of  your  business. 
Every  farm  must  have  so  much  labor  —  you  hire  one  man  or  two 
men  for  a  year.  Some  of  the  time  that  labor  is  well  used,  and 
some  of  the  time  you  have  to  hunt  around  a  little  to  find  something 
for  the  men  to  do.  That  man,  as  a  rule,  gets  the  largest  net  re- 
turns, who  occupies  the  time  of  his  men  most  effectively  —  who 
keeps  them  working  on  products  to  be  sold. 

Then  take  the  matter  of  horses.  It  costs  $120  a  year,  on  an 
average,  to  keep  a  horse,  and  our  figures  show  it  is  nearer  $140. 
Whether  you  work  that  horse  part  of  the  time  or  all  of  the  time, 
you  have  to  pay  for  his  keep  just  the  same.  The  average  farm 
horse  does  not  work  much  more  than  one-third  of  his  time.  If 
you  can  find  something  for  the  horse  to  do  that  brings  in  money, 
you  have  made  some  gain.  At  the  same  time  you  are  using  your 
man  and  your  machinery  more  effectively.  The  more  service  you 
can  get  out  of  your  land,  machinery,  and  labor  —  man  and  horse 
—  the  better  off  you  are. 

The  disadvantages  of  intercrops  are  their  inconvenience.  They 
increase,  slightly,  the  expense  of  cultivation.  In  the  case  of  some 
crops  we  have  the  inconvenience  of  spraying  and  of  harvesting. 
We  all  know  these  inconveniences  and  we  may  as  well  admit  them. 
But,  if  it  pays  in  financial  returns  to  put  up  with  them,  we  had 
better  do  it. 

ACTUAL  RETURNS  AND  EXPENSES 

I  shall  give  some  figures  on  a  twelve-year-old  apple  orchard  set 
thirty-six  feet  each  way,  filled  one  way  with  plums  and  pears, 
so  there  is  a  space  thirty-six  feet  wide  running  one  way.  On 
this  7%-acre  orchard,  containing  something  over  two  hundred 
trees,  we  have  spent,  in  the  last  twelve  years,  $1,579.50,  or  $208.93 


I  .\  I  KRCROPPING  THE  YOUNG   ORCHARD 


'99 


an  acre,  including  interest  on  valuation.  We  now  value  it  at  about 
$225  an  acre.  We  have  secured  a  gross  income  from  that  piece 
of  land  of  a  little  over  $1,438.55,  or  $190.28  an  acre,  but  it  still 
owes  us  $140.95,  or  $18.66  an  acre.  In  other  words,  after  paying 
for  all  the  labor  and  five  per  cent  interest  on  the  capital  invested 
in  the  land,  we  still  lack  nearly  $141  of  breaking  even  at  twelve 
vcars.  The  total  income  was  obtained  from  the  orchard  itself, 
from  plum  and  pear  fillers,  and  from  intercrops. 

TABLE  II 

COSTS,  INCOME,  AND  PROFIT  AND  Loss  OF  A  7^-AcRE,  12-YEAR-OLD  APPLE  ORCHARD 
FILLED  ONE  WAY  WITH  PLUMS  AND  PEARS 


YEAR 

Cost 
of 
orchard 

Income 
from 
orchard 

Loss 
on 
orchard  • 

Income 
from 
crop 

Net 
profit  or 
loss 

1903.. 

$116  39 

$116  39 

$15  17 

—$101  22 

l')!H 

161  57 

161  57 

42  57 

—119  00 

1905 

96  63 

96  63 

43  13 

—53  50 

1906 

93  18 

93  18 

120  90 

+27  72 

1()07 

96  73 

96  73 

38  85 

—57  88 

1908 

67  85 

67  85 

37  68 

—30  17 

1909  

1910.. 
1911  ?.. 

87  61 

101  12 
93  23 

$41  90 

38  65 
38  00 

35  71 

62  47 
55  23 

0/61  32 
s  V39  29 
60  70 
30  45 

+64  90 

—1  77 
—24  78 

1912  
1913  
1914  

159  80 
235  26 
270  13 

30  56 
229  28 
252  63 

129  24 
5  98 
17  50 

52  43 
194  88 
170  16 

—76  81 
+  188  90 
+152  66 

12  years 

$1,579  50 

$631  02 

$948  48 

$807  53 

—$140  95 

7  5  acres 

208  93 

83  47 

125  46 

106  80 

—18  66 

Labor  rates  used  in  figuring  crop  profits  vary  according  to  season. 

(The  $208.93  total  cost  was  made  up  of  $43.12  man  labor,  $27.20 
lorse  labor,  and  $138.61  for  materials  and  interest.  The  income 
rom  that  orchard  was  $807.53  from  crops,  or  $106.80  an  acre 
or  the  twelve  years;  that  is,  a  little  less  than  $10  an  acre  per 
rear  for  crops.  We  charge  the  interest  and  taxes  and  overhead 
:harges  all  against  the  orchard;  it  is  net  so  far  as  the  piece  of 
arid  is  concerned.  From  the  plums  and  pears  we  obtained 
5415.44,  and  from  the  apples  $215.58,  or  about  $28.50  an  acre. 
Had  we  not  intercropped  that  orchard,  it  would  have  owed  us 
nore  than  it  does  now.  Had  we  grown  simply  an  apple  orchard 


800  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

without  any  fillers,  and  without  any  crops,  that  orchard  would 
have  cost  us  an  actual  outlay  of  about  $250  an  acre,  instead  of 
$200.  For  me  that  is  sufficient  argument  for  growing  crops  be- 
tween the  rows.  In  giving  these  figures  I  am  not  setting  up 
any  standard,  because  I  know  some  growers  have  made  two  or 
three  times  as  much  as  this  from  intercrop^,  and  others  have  not 
made  anything.  I  am  thoroughly  convinced,  so  far  as  I  am  con- 
cerned, that  it  pays  to  fill  young  apple  orchards,  and  that  it  pays 
to  grow  crops  between  the  rows.  The  crops  we  grew  were  as  fol- 
lows :  corn,  beans,  beans,  beans,  beans,  and  corn  again.  Then  we 
put  in  oats,  wheat,  and  two  years  of  hay,  and  then  went  back  to 
wheat  and  beans  again.  Of  course  we  have  to  grow  the  intercrops 
farther  and  farther  from  the  tree  rows  each  year.  We  now  keep 
a  full  harrow  width  on  each  side  of  the  tree  for  cultivation,  hav- 
ing gradually  widerted  the  distance  each  year. 

As  to  the  income  from  these  various  crops,  I  do  not  feel  that  I 
can  give  averages,  except  in  one  or  two  cases.  So  far  as  we  have 
tested,  beans  have  averaged  $8.40  per  acre  net  profit  for  five  years, 
charging  interest  and  overhead  expense  to  the  orchard;  corn,  an 
average  of  $3.50  for  the  two  years  that  we  grew  it;  hay,  $5.50; 
grain,  $8.15  for  the  two  years.  Peas  gave  us  a  profit  of  $25  an 
acre,  but  that  was  two  years  ago  when  we  had  a  good  crop.  Last 
year  we  did  not  try  to  grow  peas. 

We  all  know  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
growing  these  various  crops.  We  know,  for  instance,  that  corn 
between  the  tree  rows  is  not  advantageous  to  the  trees  in  many 
cases.  We  know  the  trouble  in  harvesting  —  I  will  not  go  into 
this.  I  have  given  these  figures  simply  to  show  some  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  these  crops. 

APPLES    WITH    PEACHES    AS    FILLERS 

I  shall  also  give  the  facts  on  one  other  orchard.  This  is  an  apple 
orchard  filled  both  ways  with  peaches.  It  is  a  ten-acre  orchard, 
but  I  shall  give  the  figures  only  on  that  half  which  is  now  seven 
years  old,  and  for  the  first  four  years.  It  cost  us  $84  an  acre  to 
grow  this  orchard.  During  this  period  we  obtained  a  gross  in- 
come of  $313.13,  or  a  little  over  $62  an  acre,  leaving  a  net  loss  of 
$107,  or  a  little  over  $21  an  acre,  at  the  end  of  the  four-year 


I  .\TKKCROPPlX(i    TIIK   YOUNG   ORCHARD 


801 


period.     The  man  labor  was  15  per  cent  of  the  cost,  the  horse  labor 

20  per  cent,  and  material  and  overhead  charges  about  05  per  cent. 

In  this  orchard  we  grew  four  crops  of  beans,  successively.     It 

was  filled  both  ways  with  peaches,  so  there  was  not  much  space. 

TABLE  III 

COST  OP  GROWING  5  ACRES  OF  APPLES  AND  PEACHES  TO  FOUR  YEARS  OP  AGE 


MAN 

LABOR 

HORSE 

LABOR 

Total 

Material 

YEAR 

Hours 

Cost 
(ISc.) 

Hours 

Cost 
(15c.) 

labor 

fixed 
costs 

Total 

1908... 
1909  
1910  
1911  

124 
63£ 
58 
162 

$22  32 
11  43 
10  44 
29  16 

36 
74£ 
24| 
63 

$5  40 
11  18 
3  67 
9  45 

$27  72 
22  61 
14  11 
38  61 

$106  03 
65  14 
71  05 
75  00 

$133  75 

87  75 
85  16 
113  61 

Total.. 

$73  35 

$29  70 

$103  05 

$317  22 

$420  27 

Acre  (5)  

$14  67 

$5  94 

$20  61 

$63  40 

$84  01 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  COST  OF  A  4-YEAR-OLD  5-AcRE  APPLE  AND  PEACH  ORCHARD 


YEAR 

Crop 
grown 

e  Net 
income 
from 
crop 

Income 
from 
orchard 

Cost 
of 
orchard 

Profit 

Loss 

1908    . 

Beans 

$63  37 

$130  12 

$62  75 

1909  

Beans 

66  70 

85  03 

18  33 

1910  

Beans.  .  .  . 

79  81 

83  39 

3  58 

1911  

Beans.  .  .  . 

53  20 

$46  05 

61  95 

$37  30 

$267  08 

$46  05 

$360  49 

$37  30 

$84  66 

Total  cost  per  acre,  exclusive  of  income $72  10 


Total  cost  per  acre,  including  income . . 

Total  net  cost  per  100  trees 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree 

Total  net  cost  per  apple  tree,  excluding  income 

Average  net  income  per  year  (excluding  interest  and  taxes),  beans.  . 
Average  net  income  per  year  (excluding  interest  and  taxes)  per  acre. 


9  47 
4  73 

376 
2  86 
6677 
13  35 


We  grew  six  rows  of  beans  the  first  year  and  four  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  years.  The  last  crop  was  very  small.  From  these  four 
crops  of  beans  we  obtained  a  net  profit  of  $267  (again  not  charg- 
ing the  interest  and  overhead  against  the  crop,  but  against  the 


802  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

orchard),  or  $53  an  acre.  From  the  fillers  we  obtain  a  profit 
'which  was  a  little  less  than  $10  an  acre  the  fourth  year. 

In  this  orchard,  instead  of  having  an  investment  of  $72.10 
an  acre  at  the  end  of  four  years,  we  have  an  investment  of  only 
$9.47,  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  we  have  grown  crops  between 
the  rows.  I  may  say  that  in  the  last  two  years  this  orchard  has 
borne  peaches  enough  to  more  than  defray  its  entire  cost.  And 
this  peach  orchard,  seven  years  old  at  the  present  time,  filled  with 
peaches  still  in  their  prime,  has  not  only  paid  the  entire  cost  of 
growing  all  the  trees,  but  has  returned  a  profit  of  something  like 
$16  an  acre  in  one  year. 

Perhaps  these  two  cases  represent  a  variation  that  all  of  us  will 
find  more  or  less.  In  one  case  we  have  an  orchard  that  is  still  in 
debt  and  in  which  we  have  not  broken  even  at  the  end  of  twelve 
years,  whereas  another  orchard  has  made  some  profit  at  six  years. 
You  will  find  all  these  variations. 

CONCLUSIONS 

If  we  are  in  this  business  for  the  profit  there  is  in  it  and  if  we 
do  not  care  to  make  a  heavy  investment  in  the  growing  of  young 
orchards,  and  wait  ten  to  fifteen  years  for  returns  from  them,  I  am 
fully  convinced  that  intercropping  and  interfilling  is  a  profitable 
practice,  from  an  economic  point  of  view. 


SOD  MULCH  vs.  TILLAGE  FOR  APPLE  ORCHARDS 

W.  I).  ArciiTEB,  BARNARD,  MONROE  Co.,  ~N.  Y. 

INTRODUCTION 

Orchardists  have  heard  and  read  a  great 
deal  in  the  past  ten  to  twenty  years  about 
the  best  manner  of  handling  the  soil  in 
their  apple  orchards.  Many  different 
methods  have  been  advocated.  Thus,  we 
have  heard  sod,  sod  mulch,  sod  and  pas- 
ture, clean  tillage,  tillage  and  cover  crop, 
alternate  tillage,  and  partial  tillage  all 
praised  and  condenined  alike.  As  a  re- 
sult, many  fruit  growers  have  been  just  a 
little  doubtful  as  to  which  method  really 

was  the  best.  From  my  standpoint,  I  cannot  see  any  reason  for 
an  argument  in  a  case  where  all  sides  may  be  right.  For  instance, 
one  man  may  have  an  orchard  on  such  a  steep  and  rocky  hillside 
that  it  would  be  folly  for  him  to  try  to  cultivate  the  soil ;  another 
man  may  have  an  orchard  on  a  hillside  a  little  too  steep  to  allow  of 
complete  cultivation,  but  he  could  practice  partial  cultivation  — 
that  of  plowing  and  working  about  the  trees  with  a  strip  of  sod  in 
the  center  of  the  rows  to  hold  the  soil  from  washing;  while  still 
another  man  with  a  level-lying  orchard  will  usually  find  that 
tillage  and  cover  crops  is  the  best  method  of  culture  to  use. 

SOD    MULCH    VS.    TILLAGE    AND    COVER    CROPS 

As  most  of  the  orchards  in  New  York  State  are  easily  adapted 
to  either  the  sod  mulch  system  or  tillage  and  cover  crops,  and 
since  these  are  the  two  principal  systems  about  which  so  much 
is  heard,  I  will  give  my  experience  with  these  methods  only. 

The  main  object  in  orchard  culture  is  the  preservation  of 
moisture.  Water  constitutes  from  82  to  89  per  cent  of  the  apple. 
Likewise,  the  twigs  and  leaves  have  considerable  moisture  in, 
them.  As  a  result,  if  the  soil  moisture  is  lost,  the  effect  of  it  is 
generally  seen  in  the  small  size  of  the  apples.  This  is  commonly 

[803] 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  ^S"EW  YORK  STATE 


804 


noticed  in  very  dry  seasons,  when  the  apples  are  small  as  compared 
to  their  size  during  seasons  of  abundant  rainfall. 

The  sod  mulch  system,  more  commonly  known  as  the  Hitch- 
ings  method,  consists  of  getting  a  good,  heavy  sod  in  the  orchard, 
from  a  mixture  of  blue  grass,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  and  tall 
meadow  oat  grass,  and  then  leaving  the  orchard  permanently  to 
this  sod.  The  grass  should  be  cut,  preferably  twice  a  year,  and 
allowed  to  lie  where  it  falls  in  bearing  orchards.  The  contention 
is  that  this  grass  will  act  as  a  mulch  and  thus  conserve  the  soil 


FIG.  213.— VIEW  OF  ORCHARD  WHERE  TEST  WAS  CARRIED  ox 

Plat  at  left  was  given  over  to  clean  cultivation  and  cover  crop  method.    At  the 
right  is  the  sod  mulch  plat  with  grass  at  cutting  time 

moisture  from  being  lost.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  is  an 
easy,  cheap,  and  convenient  method  to  use,  provided  good  results 
are  obtained  with  it. 

When  a  system  of  tillage  and  cover  crops  is  used  in  an  orchard, 
the  soil  is  plowed  every  spring  and  harrowed  from  five  to  seven 
times,  and,  if  possible,  after  every  rain.  About  the  first  of  August 
a  cover  crop  of  some  legume  is  sown.  The  next  spring  this  cover 
crop  is  plowed  under  and  the  same  system  carried  out  again. 


SOD  MULCH  vs.  TILLAGE  FOR  APPLE  OK<  HAI;DS          805 

• 

Hy  this  method  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  is  added  to  the  soil 
and,  as  a  result  of  the  deep  dust  mulch  which  is  kept  on  the 
orchard,  the  moisture  is  preserved. 

CULTURAL    KXl'KK'I.MKNTS 

In  1903,  the  Xew  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at 
Geneva,  being  interested  in  this  debated  subject,  selected  one  of  my 
bearing  Baldwin  apple  orchards  in  which  to  make  a  test  of  these 
two  methods  of  culture. 

The  trees  in  this  orchard  were  27  years  old  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment.  They  were  40  feet  apart  on  the  square  system,  or 
27  trees  to  the  acre.  The  orchard  was  ten  rows  wide  and  twenty- 
seven  long,  thus  making  it  nearly  three  times  as  long  as  broad, 
and  consisting  of  9V2  acres.  The  soil  is  a  fertile  Dunkirk  loam 
about  1 0  inches  deep,  with  a  sandy  to  gravelly  subsoil.  The  topog- 
raphy of  the  orchard  is  very  slightly  rolling. 

The  orchard  «was  divided  the  long  way  into  equal  parts.  In  one- 
half  the  sod  mulch  method  was  started,  while  in  the  other  the  til- 
lage and  cover  crop  system  was  used,  as  explained  above. 

EFFECTS    OF    THE    TWO    METHODS 

The  test  had  not  been  running  two  years,  before  my  neighbors 
began  asking  me  if  I  was  trying  to  kill  half  of  my  orchard.  The 
difference  between  the  two  halves  was  striking.  As  far  as  one 
could  see  the  orchard,  he  could  tell  exactly  which  rows  were  culti- 
vated and  which  were  in  sod.  The  cultivated  trees  had  a  rich, 
dark  green  foliage  and  a  rank,  vigorous  growth,  while  the  trees  in 
sod  had  a  sickly  yellow-green  foliage  and  a  short  growth  of  wood. 
When  it  came  time  to  pick  the  crop,  the  difference  was  again  as 
striking.  It  did  not  take  the  pickers,  who  were  picking  by  the 
barrel,  very  long  to  find  out  that  there  was  more  fruit  on  the  tilled 
trees,  thus  allowing  them  to  get  a  barrel  with  fewer  moves  of  the 
ladders.  They  noticed  also  that  the  barrels  filled  up  more  quickly 
with  the  larger  fruit  on  the  tilled  plat.  When  uninterested  help 
like  this  noticed  the  striking  difference  in  the  two  plats,  I  felt  sure 
that  it  was  an  unbiased  opinion. 


806 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  NEW  YORK  STATE 


S<M>  MCLCH  vs.  TII.LA<;K  FOR  AIMM.K  (  )RCII  AI:I>S  807 

CTIAXGE    OF    KXl'KKI.MEXT 

The  experiment  as  above  described  was  continued  for  five  years, 
\\licn  it  was  proven  without  doubt  to  the  fruit  growers  in  my 
section  that  tillage  j-.nd  cover  crops  was  the  only  method  of  orchard 
culture  to  use  in  western  New  York,  at  least.  The  Geneva  Ex- 
periment Station  published  Bulletin  No.  314  at  this  time,  giving 
the  live  years'  results  of  the  two  tests. 

The  orchard  was  then  cut  across  the  narrow  way,  making  four 
equal  plats.  ( )ne  plat  was  left  in  sod  for  five  years  more,  making 
ten  years  in  all ;  the  other  sod  plat  was  plowed  up  and  given  tillage 
and  cover  crop ;  one  tilled  plat  was  carried  011  for  five  years  more, 
while  the  other  tilled  plat  was  seeded  down  to  sod.  We  were  in- 
terested to  see  if  the  tillage  would  bring  up  the  sod  quarter  and 
also  to  see  what  effect  the  sod  would  have  on  the  tilled  quarter. 

RESULTS    OBTAINED 

The  results  could  be  seen  sooner  than  we  had  expected.  During 
tlie  first  summer  that  the  sod  plat  was  plowed  up  and  tilled,  the 
foliage  at  once  became  as  dark  a  green  and  as  healthy  as  that  on  the 
plat  that  had  always  been  plowed.  The  trees  began  to  grow  and 
take  on  a  brighter  appearance,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  it  hardly 
seemed  possible  that  such  a  beneficial  result  could  have  been  ob- 
tained from  one  year's  plowing  and  harrowing.  The  crop  like- 
wise became  larger  on  these  plats,  as  shown  in  Table  I. 

When  we  came  to  study  the  other  quarter  of  the  orchard  —  that 
which  had  been  tilled  five  years  and  then  seeded  down  to  sod  - 
the  results  were  just  as  marked.  The  trees  began  to  show  the  detri- 
mental effects  of  sod  the  first  season.  The  foliage  was  poorer, 
the  tree  growth  shorter  and  the  yields  were  reduced.  At  the  close 
of  five  years  this  plat  looked  as  bad  as  that  which  had  been  in 
sod  for  ten  years.  It  looked  to  us  as  if  the  grass  robbed  the  trees 
of  more  moisture  than  it  conserved. 

TABLE  I 

AVERAGE  YEARLY   YIELDS   PER   TREE   FOR  THE   LAST  FIVE   YEARS   UNDER   DIFFERENT 

CULTURAL   METHODS 

Cultural  Methods 

Tilled   for   ten   years 

Sod    for    ten    years 

Tilled   five  years,  then   sod   five  years 

Sod  five  years,  then  tilled  five  years 


808 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  Xi-:w  YORK  STATE 


Table  1  speaks  for  itself.  It  can  be  seen  that  tillage  lias  in  all 
cases  increased  the  yield  considerably,  while  the  sod  treatment 
has  lowered  it. 


GEXERAL  EFFECT  OF  SOD  MULCH  FOR  TEX  YEARS  COMPARED  TO 
TILLAGE  AXD  COVER  CROPS 

In  comparing  the  quarter  of  the  orchard  that  had  been  in  sod 
for  ten  years  with  the  quarter  under  tillage  and  cover  crops  for 
the  same  length  of  time,  probably  the  greatest  difference  could  be 


FIG.  215. —  Row  OF  TOMPKIXS  COUNTY  KTXGS  C.ROwixa  UXDKR  THE  MULCH 
SYSTEM  ON  FARM  OF  L.  L.  MORRELL,  KIXDERHOOK,  X..  Y. 

seen.  At  the  end  of  the  ten  years,  the  tilled  trees  looked  more 
vigorous  and  healthy  than  ever  before,  but  the  trees  in  sod  cer- 
tainly presented  a  sickly  appearance.  The  foliage  was  sparse, 
the  leaves  small  and  yellow.  The  trees  were  making  practically 
no  terminal  growth.  Their  appearance  was  that  of  a  starved 
orchard.  Measurements  showed  that  during  the  ten  years  the 
trunks  of  the  tilled  trees  had  increased  1.51  inches  more  in  trans- 
verse diameter  than  had  those  in  the  sod  plat.  This  means  much 


SOD  MULCH  vs.  TILLAGE  FOR  APPLE  ORCHARDS          809 

in  a  thirty -year-old  apple  tree.  The  weight  of  the  leaves  on  the 
tilled  plat  averaged  2.8  grams  more  per  leaf  than  those  on  the  sod 
plat.  The  fruit  ripened  about  three  weeks  earlier  on  the  sod 
plat  and  generally  excelled  in  color  the  fruit  from  the  tilled  plat. 
However,  the  fruit  from  the  tilled  plat  was  larger,  crisper  and 
juicier  than  that  from  the  sod  plat,  and  kept  from  three  to  four 
weeks  longer  in  common  storage.  Actual  count  showed  434  apples 
per  barrel  on  the  sod  plat,  weighing  5.01  ounces  each,  while  it  took 
only  309  apples  from  the  tilled  plat  to  make  a  barrel.  These 
apples  weighed  7.04  ounces  each. 

COSTS   AND   RETURNS 

In  the  final  analysis,  the  thing  in  which  fruit  growers  are  all 
interested  is  yields,  costs,  and  returns.  No  matter  how  good  a 
method  may  be,  if  it  will  not  produce  the  income,  we  are  not  inter- 
ested in  it.  I  venture  to  say  that  in  this  respect  we  are  no  differ- 
ent from  other  business  men. 

Summarizing  the  yields,  costs,  etc.,  this  orchard  for  ten  years,* 
gave  us  an  average  yield  per  acre  on  the  sod  plat  of  69.16 
barrels,  and  011  the  tilled  plat  116.8  barrels,  or  a  difference  in 
favor  of  the  tilled  plat  of  47.64  barrels  per  acre  per  year.  The 
average  cost  per  acre  of  growing  and  harvesting  apples  in  sod  was 
$51.73  ;  under  tillage  the  cost  was  $83.48  —  a  difference  in  favor 
of  sod  of  $31.75.  However,  when  these  figures  were  subtracted 
from  the  gross  returns,  it  was  found  that  the  increased  returns 
from  the  larger  crop  on  the  tilled  plat  more  than  offset  this  differ- 
ence. There  was  a  balance  left  for  the  sod  plat  of  $74.31  per 
acre  and  for  the  tilled  plat  $140.67  per  acre;  in  other  words, 
$66.36  more  per  acre  per  year  was  made  from  the  tilled  plat  after 
deducting  expenses  than  was  made  from  the  sod  plat.  This 
means  that  for  every  dollar  taken  from  the  sod  plat,  after  deduct- 
ing the  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  the  apples,  one  dollar  and 
eighty-nine  cents  was  taken  from  the  tilled  plat  each  year  for 
ten  years.  With  us  there  is  need  for  no  more  proof  as  to  which 
method  of  culture  is  the  best. 


*  U.  P.  Hedrick,  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletins  314  and  383. 


810  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

CONCLUSION 

Although  we  realize  that  in  some  sections,  where  the  soil  is  too 
steep  or  too  rocky  or  where  abundant  moisture  happens  to  'be 
present,  some  other  form  of  orchard  culture  may  be  the  most 
profitable,  still  we  fruit  growers  who  have  had  a  chance  to  study 
the  two  methods  of  orchard  culture  tried  ont  side  by  side  believe 
that,  under  our  conditions  in  western  Xew  York,  the  tillage  and 
cover  crops  system  is  far  superior  to  the  sod  mulch  method.  In 
fact,  the  sod  mulch  method  is  absolutely  detrimental  to  the  trees. 
Whenever  a  person  is  undecided  as  to  which  method  of  culture  to 
use,  he  should  by  all  means  try  out  two  or  three  methods  side  by 
side.  Only  by  this  means  can  a  fair  and  just  comparison  be  made. 


FERTILIZERS   FOR  FRUITS 

U.  P.  HKDRICK 
Horticulturist,   New  York   Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   Geneva,   X.   Y. 

I  shall  discuss  briefly  several  comparative  tests  of  fertilizers 
for  fruits  made  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

The  first  was  carried  on  for  twelve  years  in  an  old  apple 
orchard,  in  which  the  trees  had  practically  completed  their 
growth  hefore  the  experiment  began.  The  soil  was  a  heavy  clay 
loam,  fairly  typical  of  the  majority  of  the  orchards  of  western 
Xow  York.  For  twelve  years,  applications  of  potassium,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  lime  were  made  on  an  orchard  forty-three  years 
old  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  There  were  some  slight 
gains  in  yield  for  the  fertilized  trees,  but  there  was  no  difference 
in  color  or  keeping  quality  of  fruit  between  crops  from  fertilized 
and  unfertilized  trees.  Practically,  if  not  strictly  in  fact,  the 
results  were  negative.  The  data  showed  that  it  was  not  profitable 
to  apply  potassium,  phosphorus,  or  lime  to  the  soil  of  this  Station 
orchard;  that  fifty-five  years  of  cropping  had  not  reduced  this  soil 
to  a  condition  where  it  needed  a  "  complete "  fertilizer.  Stable 
manure  or  cover  crops  plowed  under  in  this  orchard  usually 
showed  beneficial  results  the  same  or  the  next  season.  It  would 
be  an  assumption  to  say  which  it  is  —  the  food  or  the  condition  of 
the  soil  brought  about  by  the  organic  matter,  or  both  —  that  proved 
beneficial  when  manure  and  cover  crops  were  plowed  under. 

The  second  experiment  was  with  young  apple  trees  and  began 
in  the  spring  of  1896.  Ben  Davis  stock  set  in  April  was  top- 
worked  to  Rome  Beauty  in  July,  the  buds  having  all  been  taken 
from  one  tree  to  avoid  variations.  The  orchard  was  laid  off  in 
twelve  plats  of  five  trees  each.  In  plats  1  and  9  stable  manure 
was  used  at  the  rate  of  five  tons  per  acre;  plats  2  and  8,  acid  phos- 
phate at  the  rate  of  350  pounds  per  acre;  plats  6  and  10,  acid 
phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash — 350  pounds  of  the  first  and  200 
pounds  of  the  second ;  plats  4  and  12,  the  above  amounts  of  acid 
phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash,  plus  250  pounds  dried  blood 
and  95  pounds  nitrate  of  soda;  plats  3,  5,  7,  and  11  were  checks. 

[811] 


812  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

The  first  application  of  these  fertilizers  was  made  when  the  trees 
were  three  years  old,  and  fourteen  applications  have  followed. 
Tillage  has  consisted  of  an  early  spring  plowing  and  cultivation 
until  about  the  first  of  August,  followed  by  a  cover  crop  of  some 
non-leguminous  plant.  What  are  the  results  ? 

The  orchard  bore  its  first  crop  of  fruit  in  1902,  when  the  trees 
were  six  years  of  age,  and  it  has  borne  nine  crops  since.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  individual  records  of  the  sixty  trees  and  of  the 
twelve  plats,  for  seven  crops,  shows  only  negative  results. 

In  any  way  the  data  are  studied,  it  is  impossible  to  find  a 
decided  benefit  from  one  treatment  over  another.  The  nitrogen 
applied  is  mostly  lost.  The  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  stored 
where  "  neither  .moth  nor  rust  can  corrupt."  The  storage,  how- 
ever, of  these  two  food  constituents  in  a  soil  such  as  ours,  where 
there  are  already  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  times  the  quantities 
of  them  needed,  is  unprofitable  business.  One  might  as  well  gild 
gold,  paint  a  rose,  or  throw  perfume  on  a  violet. 

These  are  the  facts,  but  facts  signify  little  or  nothing  unless 
they  fit  into  a  theory.  Farm  and  garden  crops  on  the  Station 
grounds  respond  to  application  of  fertilizers.  Why  do  not  apples  ? 
The  answer  probably  is  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil,  and  the  apple  plant  is  preeminently  able  to  help  itself 
to  what  is  set  before  it. 

That  there  is  an  abundance  of  plant  food  in  most  cultivated 
soil,  many  chemists  now  agree.  In  a  wheat  field  in  Rothamsted, 
England,  it  was  found  that  on  land  cultivated  for  centuries  and 
then  subjected  to  fifty-four  years'  continuous  cropping  with  wheat 
and  without  fertilizers,  there  was  still  nutriment  enough  for  a 
hundred  or  more  full  crops.  Much  of  this  food  is  not  available, 
but  it  now  seems  that  by  the  regulation  of  the  moisture  and  by  put- 
ting organic  matter  in  the  soil  whereby  we  secure  the  solvent  action 
of  humus  and  of  the  bacteria  that  thrive  in  humus,  much  of  the 
unavailable  plant  food  in  a  soil  may  be  made  available.  How 
much,  it  would  be  an  assumption  to  say,  as  there  seem  to  be  no  ex- 
periments to  prove  this  point.  Indeed,  to  attempt  to  prove  it 
wrould  make  a  problem  so  complex  as  to  be  almost  impossible, 
and  so  variable  for  different  soils  as  to  require  a  solution  for  each 
particular  soil.  Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  definite  proof 


FKKTII.I/KUS  FOR  FRUITS  813 

as  to  how  much  of  the  unavailable  plant  food  in  a  soil  may  be 
made  available,  I  think  it  may  be  safely  said  from  theoretical 
deductions  that  the  yearly  plowing,  the  continuous  tillage,  the 
well-regulated 'supply  of  moisture,  and  the  addition  of  humus  by 
plowing  under  cover  crops,  have  made  available  the  plant  food 
which  the  apple  trees  in  these  two  experiments  needed. 

A  once  favorite  theory  which  may  still  hold  regarding  fertilizers 
is  that  the  composition  of  the  crop  is  a  good  guide  to  the  fertilizer 
requirements  of  that  crop.  Very  1111  fortunately,  there  have  been 
almost  no  well-conducted,  long-continued  experiments  to  ascertain 
what  the  fertilizer  requirements  of  fruits  are.  In  America,  there 
have  been  less  than  a  half  dozen  experiments,  planned  and  carried 
out  for  more  than  two  years,  which  by  any  stretch  of  imagination 
could  be  called  fertilizer  experiments.  Therefore,  having  no 
definite  data  for  the  apple  as  to  fertilizer  requirements,  practically 
all  of  our  recommendations  for  fertilizing  this  fruit  are  based  on 
the  differences  in  the  chemical  composition  of  this  plant  as  com- 
pared with  the  composition  of  grain  and  garden  crops.  But  the 
fertilizer  requirements  of  fruits  cannot  be  correctly  apprehended 
by  comparing  chemical  composition  of  trees,  bushes  or  vines  with 
those  of  grain  and  garden  crops,  because  their  habits  of  growth 
are  entirely  different  from  those  of  the  other  crops:  These  differ- 
ences in  growth  need  to  be  kept  in  mind  whenever  the  temptation 
arises  to  draw  comparisons  between  the  fertilization  of  orchards 
and  of  fields  or  gardens.  Let  us  sum  up  the  chief  differences. 

Trees  have  a  preparatory  time  of  several  seasons  before  fruit- 
bearing  begins;  farm  and  truck  crops  make  their  growth,  bear 
a  crop  and  pass  away,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  single  season.  Trees 
begin  to  grow  early  in  the  spring  and  continue  until  late  fall ;  few 
annual  crops  are  in  active  growth  more  than  half  the  time  when 
leaves  and  roots  of  trees  are  at  work.  The  roots  of  trees  go  much 
deeper  and  spread  relatively  farther  than  do  those  of  succulent 
crops.  Such  data  as  are  at  hand  seem  to  show  that  fruit  transpires 
•a  greater  amount  of  water  in  proportion  to  its  leaf  area  than  do 
most  succulent  plants,  which  means  that  the  nutritive  soil  solu- 
tion may  be  less  concentrated  than  for  grains  and  vegetables  and 
yet  feed  the  fruits  equally  well.  Fruit  crops  are  from  80  to  90 
per  cent  water,  and  the  leaves  mostly  remain  on  the  ground;  in 


814  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTKY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

field  crops  the  product  has  a  much  higher  percentage  of  solids,  and 
the  roughage  is  not  usually  returned  to  the  soil.  These  differences 
in  manner  of  feeding  and  in  the  crop  taken  from  the  ground 
largely  account,  to  my  mind,  for  the  lack  of  results  in  applying 
fertilizers  in  orchards,  while  in  adjoining  fields,  farm  crops  have 
abundantly  repaid  the  cost  of  fertilizing  them. 

Almost  as  barren  of  results  as  in  the  apple  orchard  are  experi- 
ments carried  on  with  commercial  fertilizers  for  grapes  in  Chau- 
tauqua  County,  the  chief  grape  region  of  New  York,  fertilizers 
having  been  applied  in  six  vineyards  on  different  soils  for  five 
years.  The  results  are  confusing,  contradictory,  and  unsatisfac- 
tory, but  from  them  in  well-tilled  vineyards  only  the  use  of  nitro- 
gen as  a  commercial  fertilizer  could  be  encouraged  —  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  lime  being  usually  wholly  or  so  nearly  inert  as 
not  to  be  profitable. 

Seven  other  experiments,  all  deciduous  tree  fruits  being  in- 
cluded, are  under  way  in  different  parts  of  New  Yrork,  the  number 
of  seasons  for  each  varying  from  one  to  five.  It  is  too  early  to 
draw  conclusions;  but  the  indications  are  that  nitrogen  is  most 
often  the  limiting  factor,  that  phosphorus  is  only  occasionally 
needed,  and  that,  in  these  New  York  soils,  potassium  and  lime 
are  very  seldom  needed  for  fruits. 

What  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  these  several  experiments  ? 
To  me  they  indicate  that  in  orchards  and  vineyards,  if  well 
drained,  well  tilled,  and  properly  supplied  by  organic  matter 
from  stable  manure  or  cover  crops,  commercial  fertilizers  are  little 
needed.  The  exceptions  will  largely  be  found  on  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils  deficient  in  potassium  and  phosphate  and  very  sub- 
ject to  droughts;  on  soils  of  such  mechanical  texture  as  to  limit  the 
root  range  of  the  plants ;  in  soils  so  wet,  so  dry,  so  devoid  of  humus 
or  so  close  in  texture  that  soil  bacteria  do  not  thrive.  These 
exceptions  mean  generally  that  a  soil  possessing  them  is  unfitted 
for  fruit  culture.  There  may  be  some  orchards  now  receiving 
good  care  and  planted  on  naturally  good  soils  that  require  addi- 
tions of  one  or  possibly  two  of  the  chief  elements  of  plant  food. 
Few,  indeed,  require  a  complete  fertilizer.  What  these  special 
requirements  are  can  only  be  decided  by  tests  with  the  several 
fertilizers,  and  are  probably  not  ascertainable  by  soil  analysis. 


FK  UTILIZERS   FOR  FRUITS 


815 


These  conclusions  are  somewhat  revolutionary,  but  I  believe  that 
they  iiiny  he  properly  deducted  from  the  experiments  discussed, 
that  they  are  substantiated  by  experiments  elsewhere  and  that 
they  are  abundantly  confirmed  in  fruit-growing  experiences. 

I  cannot  close  without  further  emphasizing  the  importance  in 
orcharding  of  paying  attention  to  all  the  factors  which  contribute 
to  plant  growth  as  well  as  to  the  supply  of  food.  Such  factors  as 
moisture,  soil  temperature,  aeration  and  the  texture  of  the  soil 
must  not  be  neglected.  Any  of  these,  or  any  combination  of  them, 
as  well  as  the  supply  of  food,  may  be  the  factor  which  limits  the 
yield  in  an  apple  orchard.  Moisture  is  often  the  limiting  factor. 
-  in  my  opinion  most  often  the  limiting  factor  —  carrying  away 
plant  foods  in  open  soils  and  restricting  the  root  run  on  heavy 
soils;  in  either  case  the  plant  may  starve  although  food  be  present, 
because  there  is  not  opportunity  for  the  plant  to  take  up  the  nutri- 
tive solution  in  sufficient  quantity.  It  is  only  when  the  water 
supply  is  perfectly  adjusted  that  there  can  be  a  fair  test  of  the 
plant  food  resources  of  a  soil.  The  same  is  true  in  a  lesser  degree 
of  the  other  factors  named. 


CARE  OF  YOUNG  TREES 

WILLIAM  HOTALI^G,  KIKDERHOOK,  N.  Y. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecturer 

In  the  setting  of  orchards  the  first  thing 
of  importance  to  get  clearly  in  mind  is 
that  for  best  growth  and  development  trees 
require  the  same  conditions  as  do  any 
other  plants.  It  necessarily  follows  that 
•  the  better  the  preparation  given  the  soil 
before  planting,  the  more  satisfactory  will 
be  the  condition  of  the  trees  during  their 
early  life,  all  other  things  being  equal. 
Under  certain  conditions,  to  be  sure  —  for 
example,  when  moisture  and  plant  food  are 
sufficient  and  available  —  young  trees  may 

really  grow  well  even  though  almost  no  preparation  is  given.  In 
most  cases,  however,'  it  will  pay  to  fit  the  ground  as  carefully  for 
planting  young  trees  as  for  a  crop  of  corn. 

LAYING    OUT    OECHARD 

There  are  a  number  of  simple  and  easy  methods  of  laying  out 
an  orchard.  If  one  wishes  a  rapid  and  efficient  method  and  can 
drive  a  horse  straight,  perhaps  the  most  desirable  practice  may 
be  the  setting  up  of  stakes  at  desired  distances  on  each  side 
of  the  field  and  furrowing  straight  from  side  to  side.  Cross- 
furrowing  may  be  practiced  in  like  manner,  and  the  holes  may 
afterward  be  dug  where  the  furrows  cross.  If  a  little  care  is 
taken,  trees  may  be  set  very  straight  in  this  manner.  The  apple 
orchard  will  probably  stand  as  a  monument  to  our  memory  long 
after  we  are  gone,  and  for  a  thing  so  permanent  as  this  promises 
to  be,  I  believe  we  can  well  afford  to  take  a  little  extra  care  in 
the  laying  out,  as  it  may  mean  the  difference  between  shame  and 
pride  during  the  remainder  of  our  lives. 

Although  somewhat  slower,  one  of  the  best  methods  is  that  of 
using  stakes  and  a  tape  measure.  It  is  generally  desirable  to 

[816] 


CARE  OF  YOUNG  TREES  817 

have  the  rows  in  one  direction  parallel  to  a  road  or  fence  line, 
and  in  using  the  square  method  it  is  also  essential  that  the  rows 
should  run  at  right  angles.  The  following  procedure  has  been 
found  advisable :  Place  a  stake  at  either  end  of  the  plot  on  a  line 
parallel  to  the  fence  and  at  least  one-half  as  far  from  it  as  the 
distance  to  be  left  from  row  to  row;  set  a  row  of  stakes  straight 
between  these  two  points.  In  order  to  obtain  the  right  angle, 
measure  back  in  a  straight  line  twelve  feet  and  set  stake.  Then 
from  the  corner  stake  at  as  near  right  angles  as  possible  run  tape 
sixteen  feet  and  drive  another  stake.  When  the  distance  between 
stake  set  at  twelve  feet  and  the  one  set  at  sixteen  feet  is  twenty 
feet,  you  have  an  exact  right  angle.  Now  sight  over  the  stake  at 
the  corner  and  the  one  set  sixteen  feet  away,  and  on  line  with 
these  set  one  at  the  far  side  of  the  field.  Then  run  a  line  of  stakes 
again  at  desired  distance  apart  between  corner  stake  and  last  stake 
set,  when  you  will  have  your  two  base  lines,  and  by  measuring 
each  way  may  run  .the  rows  in  either  direction. 

Distance  Between  Trees 

The  distance  at  which  trees  should  be  set,  or  rather  the  number 
it  is  best  to  set  per  acre,  must  always  depend  on  the  individual 
orchard.  If  one  wants  to  grow  an  orchard  of  moderate  size,  on 
a  farm  where  regular  farm  crops  are  to  be  grown  between  trees 
until  they  come  into  bearing,  then  one  should  by  all  means  use 
only  standard  trees,  and  plant  at  a  good  distance  apart.  If,  how- 
ever, fruit  growing  is  the  principal  end  in  view,  and  especially 
if  other  kinds  of  fruit  are  grown,  such  as  bush  fruits  and  straw- 
berries, other  varieties  and  some  of  the  small  fruits  can  be  in- 
terpl  anted.  If  the  selections  are  wise,  the  net  return  per  acre 
will  be  increased  each  time  we  increase  the  number  per  acre  within 
reason,  because  of  the  reduction  in  overhead  charges  and  because 
there  is  always  something  growing  on  the  ground  at  a  minimum 
cost  for  labor.  Here  we  have  the  two  extremes,  both  highly  prac- 
tical under  certain  conditions,  and  every  man's  best  choice  of  dis- 
tance lies  somewhere  between.  From  forty  to  fifty  feet  for  the 
larger  spreaders,  such  as  'Spies,  Baldwins,  or  Greenings,  and 
twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  for  small-growing  fillers,  such  as  Wealthy, 
Oldenburg,  or  Sutton,  is  advisable. 


818  TILE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  .IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Different  Systems  of  Setting 

Much  lias  been  said  pro  and  con,  concerning  all  systems  of  plant- 
ing, yet  a  decision  must  always  be  somewhat  a  matter  of  personal 
choice.  At  this  time  only  two  methods,  or  some  modification  of 
them,  are  used  to  any  extent.  The  first  is  the  so-called  square 


20' 


•f  4  -»-  +  4- 

FIG.  216. —  SQUARE  METHOD  OF  PLANTING 

system,  in  which  the  rows  run  at  right  angles  to  each  other  in 
two  directions;  the  second  is  the  equilateral-triangle  system,  in 
which  all  trees  are  set  at  the  corners  of  a  sixty-degree-angled  tri- 
angle, so  that  each  tree  has  an  equal  distance  from  all  other  trees 
in  every  direction  (see  diagrams).  The  advantages  of  the  equi- 
lateral method  are  that  a  greater  number  of  trees  may  be  set  per 


30' 


4-  -J-  •+  •+ 

Fio.  217. —  METHOD  OP  PLANTING  IN  EQILATEBAL  TRIANGLES 


CARE  OF  YOUNG  TREES  819 

acre  with  equal  allowance  for  spread  and  a  better  exposure  to  sun- 
liglit ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  advantages  of  the  right-angle  method 
are  greater  ease  in  working  and  better  adaptation  to  thinning. 

Pruning  at  Time  of  Setting 

Pruning  at  planting  time  must  always  vary  according  to  the 
previous  growth  of  the  tree.  The  general  principles  that  govern 
pruning  may  be  outlined  as  follows: 

1.  So  far  as  possible  such  laterals  should  be  preserved  as  will 
give  an  ideal  type  of  framework  to  the  tree  later  on. 

2.  The  better  the  distribution  of  laterals  along  the  stem,  the 
less  is  the  liability  to  breaking  later. 

3.  The  distance  between  laterals  does  not  change  materially 
as  the  tree  takes  on  growth.     Therefore,  those  that  seem  far  apart 
in  the  young  tree  will  sometimes  be  much  too  thick  when  the  tree 
is  older. 

4.  The  strongest  growth  will  always  be  from  the  last  bud  left 
on  the  new  growth;  it  is  therefore  important  that  we  should  cut 
to  a  bud  pointing  in  the  direction  in  which  greatest  growth  is 
needed. 

5.  The  more   severely   we  prune   a   tree  when  dormant,   the 
stronger  it  will  grow,  and  the  same  holds  as  true~  at  planting  time 
as  at  any  other. 

6.  As  trees  come  into  bearing  the  limbs  have  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  droop;  it  is  therefore  wise  to  prune  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  induce  short,  rigid  growth  during  the  early  life  of  the  tree. 
This  can  be  done  by  shortening  in,  but  not  by  indiscriminate  cut- 
ting back. 

All  of  this  points  to  but  one  conclusion, —  pruning  at  time  of 
planting  must  depend  on  size  of  trees,  variety,  and  type  of  tree 
desired.  For  example,  while  we  could  start  an  ideal  tree  in 
almost  any  manner,  we  are  always  obliged,  when  we  have  a  whip 
or  a  crotch  tree  that  must  first  be  trimmed  to  a  whip,  to  content 
ourselves  with  topping  it  to  the  height  at  which  we  desire  the 
laterals  to  start.  No  specific  rule  can  therefore  be  laid  down  that 
will  answer  at  all  times,  but  all  growers  should  understand  the 
principles  and  be  governed  according  to  conditions.* 

*  See  article  on  pruning,  page  830. 


820  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

FALL   OR   SPRING   PLANTING 

Both  fall  and  spring  planting  have  their  advantages.  In  fall, 
planting  can  be  given  greater  attention  because  other  work  is  not 
so  pressing  at  that  time.  If  planting  is  done  in  the  fall,  we  should 
always  be  certain  that  our  trees  are  grown  as  far  north  as  we 
are  located.  Otherwise  they  may  not  be  properly  ripened  and 
will  probably  kill  back  more  or  less,  since  they  do  not  have  the 
same  opportunity  to  become  acclimated  as  after  spring  planting 
when  the  change  from  summer  to  winter  is  gradual. 

In  spring  planting,  the  things  of  most  importance  are:  first, 
that  our  trees  have  been  properly  wintered;  and,  secondly,  that 
they  are  well  tamped  at  time  of  planting.  A  greater  number  of 
spring-set  trees  are  lost  from  improper  tamping  than  for  all  other 
reasons  combined.  There  is  usually  moisture  enough  in  our  soils 
for  good  growth  in  any  season,  if  the  soil  is  properly  handled. 
The  only  way  the  soil  water  can  be  conveyed  to  the  roots  of  the 
trees,  however,  is  by  capillary  action,  which  means  that  soil  water 
must  pass  up  from  one  soil  particle  to  another.  This  it  can  only 
do  when  soil  particles  are  in  close  contact  one  with  the  other,  and 
such  contact  is  attained  by  hard  tamping.  Air  spaces  cut  off  this 
movement  of  water,  and  such  spaces  always  exist  when  the  soil 
is  not  well  packed.  While  tamping  is  desirable  in  the  case  of 
fall-set  trees,  it  is  not  so  important  because  the  ground  settles  in 
spring  and  naturally  takes  on  this  condition. 

CULTIVATION 

As  stated  at  the  beginning,  trees  are  dependent  on  the  same 
agencies  for  growth  and  development  as  are  other  plants,  that  is, 
on  available  plant  food  and  moisture.  Under  average  conditions 
these  are  in  almost  exact  ratio  to  cultivation.  That  being  true,  it 
necessarily  follows  that  for  the  best  results  cultivation  of  some 
kind  should  be  given.  How  this  can  best  and  most  economically 
be  practiced  must  depend  somewhat  on  the  individual  orchard. 
The  young  orchard  lends  itself  readily  to  growth  by  intercropping 
with  small  fruits  or  hoed  crops.  Wherever  practical,  then,  culti- 
vation may  be  given  in  this  manner;  or  cover  crops  may  be  used 
as  set  forth  elsewhere  in  this  bulletin.  The  point  to  be  kept  in 
mind  is  that  cultivation  of  some  kind  is  generally  desirable,  and 
necessary  for  satisfactory  growth  of  the  young  orchard. 


(  '.MM-:    <>K    Yol    X(i    TlfKKS 


S21 


VALTK    OF    SPRAYING 

"Many  people  seem  to  think  spraying  unnecessary  until  trees 
come  into  bearing.  True  they  will  often  remain  alive  without  it ; 
so  will  a  calf  without  grain.  I  am  certain,  however,  that  the  time 
has  passed  when  our  only  ambition  is  to  keep  growing  things  alive. 
What  we  want  is  best  and  most  economical  development,  or  the 
largest  returns  for  a  dollar's  worth  of  labor  and  money  spent. 

After  years  of  trial  and  practice,  I  feel  sure,  because  of  the 
small  expenditure  of  time  and  money  necessary,  that  it  pays  and 


FIG.  218. —  CHERRIES  INTERPLANTED  WITH  CARROTS 

pays  well  to  spray  trees  from  the  time  they  are  set  throughout 
their  entire  life,  both  with  the  dormant  and  foliage  sprays.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  the  grower  who  has  a  considerable 
amount  of  spraying  to  do,  because  it  requires  so  little  additional 
time  and  material  to  spray  the  young  trees.  For  those  who  have 
no  other  spraying  to  do,  it  inculcates  good  habits  that  will  later 
be  invaluable  in  fruit  growing. 

The  Dormant  Spray 

There  are  still  other  reasons  why  young  trees  should  be  sprayed. 
The  dormant  spray  is  valuable,  first  because  it  is  a  specific  for  all 


822 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  rx  NEW  YORK  STATE 


scale  insects ;  secondly,  because  by  destroying  the  egg  masses  it  is 
the  most  economical  and  efficient  method  for  the  control  of  tent 
caterpillar;  thirdly,  because  there  is  always  more  or  less  fungi 
and  insects  other  than  those  mentioned  that  it  will  control ;  and 
fourthly,  whenever  San  Jose  scale  is  present  we  can  hardly  expect 
to  retain  our  trees  alive  without  it. 


FIG.  219. —  LOW-HEADED,  WELL-SHAPED  APPLE  TREE 

The  Foliage  Sprays 

Trees  take  their  food  in  the  same  forms  as  we  do,  which  means 
that  before  they  can  make  use  of  food  in  their  growth  and  develop- 
ment it  must  all  be  elaborated  through  the  leaves  which  the  trees 
bear.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  the  leaves  be  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition  in  order  to  perform  their  function,  which  they  can 
do  only  when  free  from  fungi  and  from  insect  injuries,  both  of 
which  can  best  be  controlled  by  proper  spraying.  All  spraying  is 
dependent  on  a  proper  mixture  applied  thoroughly  at  the  right 
time,  for  success. 

If  we  were  to  make  a  separate  application  for  each  of  the  great 
number  of  orchard  pests,  including  fungi  and  insects,  we  should 
be  spraying  all  the  time.  Happily  for  us  this  is  not  necessary. 


CARE  OF  YOUNG  TREES  823 

Ingredients  may  be  used  in  combination,  so  tliat  one  application 
will  control  fungi  and  insects  of  different  habits,  and  by  proper 
combinations  often  two  applications  will  suffice  for  good  work. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  Hudson  Iliver  section,  but  not  so  true 
in  western  A'ew  York,  where  a  great  number  of  applications  are 
often  necessary  for  the  control  of  the  second  brood  of  the  codling 
moth  and  apple  scab. 

lii  this  work  one  point  should  never  be  lost  sight  of;  that  is, 
regularity  of  spraying  will  always  give  better  results  than  occa- 
sional applications,  no  matter  how  thorough  the  latter  may  be. 


CARE  OF  THE  OLD   ORCHARD 

ROY  P.  McPitERsoN,  LEROY,  GEXESEE  Co,  !N".  Y. 
Farmers'  Institute  Lecturer 

Scattered  tlirougliout  the  state  are 
numerous  apple  orchards  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. To  those  who  have  given  care  to 
such  orchards  have  corne  returns  in  fruit 
and  cash  and  in  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
Nature's  response  to  the  assistance  of  man. 
To  be  sure,  there  are  old  orchards  whose 
days  of  usefulness  are  past.  However, 
many  apple  orchards  from  thirty  to  sixty 
years  old  can  still  be  made  to  blooni  and 
bring  forth  perfect  fruit,  provided  the 
orchard  consists  of  fairly  sound  trees  of  good  varieties. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  TREE  GROWTH 

It  is  much  easier  for  one  to  handle  an  orchard  with  profit  if  he 
knows  the  essentials  of  tree  growth.  These  essentials  are,  water, 
nitrogen,  and  the  mineral  elements  from  belowT,  with  sunshine 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  from  above,  together  with  healthy  trunks, 
branches,  and  leaves. 

The  feeding  roots  of  all  plants  are  covered  with  minute  hairs 
which  take  up  water  from  the  soil,  together  with  mineral  matter 
and  nitrogen  compounds  in  solution.  There  are  no  direct  open- 
ings in  these  root  hairs,  the  material  being  taken  up  by  diffusion. 
In  the  leaves  of  plants  —  mostly  on  the  under  side  —  are  minute 
openings  leading  into  the  interior.  Air  passing  through  these 
carries  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  leaf  cells. 
Also,  the  water  taken  up  by  the  roots  is  carried  by  the  trunk  and 
branches  to  these  cells.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  and  the  water, 
meeting  in  the  cells,  are  broken  up  and  rearranged  by  the  action 
of  sunlight  and  the  green  coloring  matter  or  chlorophyll  of  the 
leaf.  The  result  of  this  union  is  a  new  substance  called  starch. 
The  leaf,  then,  is  a  starch-manufacturing  center,  each  cell  a  starch 

[824] 


('AIM-:  OF  TILE  OLD  Oi;<  IIAIM> 


825 


826  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

machine,  uniting  the  crude  materials  —  water  from  the  soil  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  air  —  into  the  great  plant  builder, 
starch.  The  wall  of  every  plant  cell  is  made  of  starch  supplied 
by  the  leaf  cells. 

Hence,  for  best  results  in  apple  production  we  must  assist 
Nature.  Nature,  when  left  to  herself,  may  bring  forth  small, 
inferior,  and  undesirable  fruit.  Man's  part  is  to  see  that  the  essen- 
tials so  necessary  for  best  production  are  all  supplied.  To  pre- 
serve the  proper  conditions  in  soil  and  tree-top,  four  things  are 
usually  indispensable  —  cultivation,  fertilization,  pruning  and 
spraying. 

CULTIVATION 

Except  under  some  unusual  conditions  of  sidehill  location, 
where  moisture  comes  freely  from  above,  or  where  the  trees  are 
kept  heavily  mulched,  cultivation  is  absolutely  necessary.  The 
orchard  should  be  plowed  in  the  early  spring,  when  the  soil  is 
filled  with  moisture,  and  cultivated  or  thoroughly  stirred,  enough 
to  keep  a  dust  mulch  on  the  surface.  The  dust  mulch  checks 
evaporation  by  breaking  up  capillarity  and  conserving  the  mois- 
ture, which  is  used  by  the  tree  roots.  Cultivation  should  cease 
not  later  than  the  latter  part  of  July. 

FERTILIZATION 

We  think  first  of  fertilization  as  the  use  of  chemical  fertilizers. 
Not  so  with  the  apple  orchard.  When  the  crop  is  harvested, 
only  a  very  small  amount  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen 
is  removed.  Experiments  by  the  State  Experiment  Station  at 
Geneva,  and  elsewhere,  show  conclusively  that  the  use  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  on  well  cultivated  orchards  does  not  pay.  Best 
results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  barnyard  manure  or  cover  crops. 
Cover  crops  are  sown  when  cultivation  ceases,  and  are  plowed 
under  the  following  spring.  For  this  crop,  red  clover,  hairy  vetch, 
or  some  other  leguminous  plant  is  used.  By  plowing  under  the 
manure  or  cover  crop,  vegetable  matter — an  element  which  nearly 
all  soils  lack  —  is  incorporated  into  the  soil.  Vegetable  matter 
increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil;  and,  when  it 
decays,  it  not  only  adds  nitrogen,  but  strengthens  the  soil  waters, 
giving  them  power  to  dissolve  some  of  the  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  already  present. 


CAKE  OF  THE  OLD  ORCHARD  827 

-  PRUNING 

The  purpose  of  pruning  is  to  admit  light  and  air  to  the  surface 
of  each  and  every  leaf  on  the  tree.  Otherwise  the  leaves  cannot 
p;  r  f<>  mi  their  function  of  making  starch.  The  objective  point  of 
every  orchard  owner  is  to  make  every  tree  produce  as  many  and  as 
largo  apples  as  he  can.  This  takes  starch,  which  can  be  made 
only  by  the  leaves.  The  leaves  cannot  make  it  without  light. 
Thus  conies  the  necessity  of  pruning  so  that  light  can  penetrate 
to  every  part  of  the  tree.  Apple  trees  on  which  the  lower  limbs 
are  dying  have  usually  been  brought  to  this  condition  by  tightly 
locked  top  branches  through  which  the  light  cannot  penetrate. 


FIG.  221. —  SPRAYING  THE  ORCHARD 

There  are  two  types  of  branches  —  water  sprouts,  which  grow 
straight  upward,  and  branches  bearing  fruit  spurs.  In  pruning, 
all  water  sprouts  should  be  removed,  as  well  as  nearly  all  branches 
growing  vertically,  because  they  interfere  with  or  shut  out  the 
light  from  other  branches.  Leave  only  those  bearing  branches 
which  grow  more  horizontally  and  thus  make  flat,  fan-shaped 
branches.  It  is  unwise  to  prune  trees  so  that  the  bearing  branches 
are  only  at  the  ends  of  the  limbs.  Fruit  spurs  should  be  found 
all  through  the  tree. 

Pruning  should  be  done  annually  in  early  spring  before  the 
growth  starts.  Trees  should  never  be  pruned  excessively,  as  is 


828  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  i^  NEW  YORK  STATE 

usually  done  in  spasmodic  pruning.     This  causes  water  sprouts. 
Branches  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  limb. 

SPRAYING 

The  reasons  for  spraying  are  to  protect  the  leaf,  which  makes 
the  starch,  and  to  save  the  fruit  from  infects  and  fungi,  which 
spoil  its  appearance  and  salability.  Spraying  must  be  done 
promptly  and  thoroughly  —  promptly  because  thus  the  insect  are 
more  easily  and  completely  destroyed,  and  thoroughly  so  that  every 
leaf  is  coated.  To  do  this,  it  is  desirable  to  drench  the  tree  so 
that  no  part  may  escape.  This  will  be  much  more  easily  accom- 
plished if  the  tree  has  been  properly  pruned. 


FIG.  222. — APPLE  ORCHARD  i>:  BLOSSOM  —  THE  WRONG  TIME  TO  SPRAY 

There  are  two  enemies  to  be  controlled  —  insects  and  fungi. 
Insects  may  be  classed  either  as  the  chewing  or  sucking  species. 
The  chewing  insects  can  be  destroyed  by  a  poison  such  as  arsenate 
of  lead,  sprayed  upon  the  leaf  or  fruit.  Sucking  insects  are  de- 
stroyed by  a  contact  spray,  which  kills  by  striking  their  bodies. 
Soap  or  tobacco  extract  is  used.  For  fungi,  the  leaf  or  fruit  must 
be  sprayed  previous  to  attacks.  The  fungicide  bordeaux  mixture 
or  lime-sulphur  is  used. 

The  first  or  dormant  spraying  is  applied  as  the  leaf  tips  appear. 
The  spray  used  is  commercial  lime  and  sulphur,  testing  32  degrees 


CARE  OF  THE  OLD  ORCHARD  829 

Baume,  or  home-made  lime  and  sulphur  in  amounts  according  to 
its  density.  If  San  Jose  scale  is  present,  one  gallon  commercial 
lime  and  sulphur  to  eight  gallons  of  water  should  be  used;  for 
blister  mite,  use  one  gallon  to  eleven  gallons  of  water.  Two 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  (or  one-half  the  amount  of  dry 
arsenate  of  lead)  should  be  added  to  each  fifty  gallons  of  solution 
as  a  spray  against  the  bud  moth  and  other  chewing  insects.  When 
red  bug  or  apple  aphis  is  prevalent,  add  three-fourths  of  a  pint 
of  tobacco  extract  (40  per  cent  nicotine)  to  each  hundred  gallons 
of  dilute  lime  and  sulphur. 

The  second  spraying  is  used  mainly  in  those  localities  where  the 
scab  fungus  is  very  common.  Cloudy  or  damp  conditions  are 
most  favorable  for  its  development.  The  spray  should  be  applied 
after  the  individual  flowers  in  the  cluster  separate  from  one 
another,  but  before  they  can  open  into  full  blossom.  Just  at  this 
time  a  spray  is  applied,  consisting  of  one  gallon  lime  and  sulphur 
to  forty  gallons  of  water,  with  two  and  one-half  pounds  arsenate 
of  lead  paste  to  every  fifty  gallons  of  the  mixture.  The  lime  and 
sulphur  protects  the  leaves  and  fruit  stems  from  the  scab,  and  the 
poison  arsenate  destroys  any  insects  that  may  be  feeding  upon  the 
foliage. 

The  third  spraying  is  against  the  larvae  of  the  codling  moth. 
These  larvae  feed  in  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple.  When  the 
petals  fall  the  calyx  is  open,  and  this  is  the  time  to  spray.  The 
calyx  soon  closes  and  retains  the  poison  inside,  ready  for  the  young 
caterpillar's  first  meal.  After  the  calyx  has  closed  it  is  too  late 
to  spray  effectively.  The  spray  used  is  the  same  as  for  the  second 
spraying.  Lime  and  sulphur  is  again  used,  because  of  the  preva- 
lence of  scab  and  other  fungous  diseases.  If  the  red  bug  appears, 
tobacco  extract  should  be  added. 

The  fourth  spraying  is  applied  the  last  of  July  against  the  late 
brood  of  the  codling  moth  and  the  late  attacks  of  the  apple  scab. 
It  is  this  larva  which  makes  the  ugly  looking  holes  in  the  side  of 
the  apple.  The  spray  consists  of  lime  and  sulphur  and  poison  of 
the  same  strength  as  in  the  second  and  third  sprayings. 


PRUNING 

EDWARD  VAX  ALSTYXE,  KIXDERHOOK,  N.  Y. 

Director  of   Farmers'   Institutes 

In  order  to  cover  the  subject  of  pruning  in  the  most  concise  way, 
I  preface  what  I  have  to  say  by  a  question  — "  Why  do  we 
prime  ?  "  and  answer  by  giving  three  chief  reasons  in  the  order  of 
their  importance: 

1.  To  grow  a  shapely  tree,  one  that  will  be  symmetrical  in  form, 
with  the  branches  so  placed  that  the  danger  from  splitting  under 
a  heavv  load  of  fruit  or  when  covered  with  snow  and  ice  will  be 


FIG.  223. —  BALDWIN  TREES,   15  YEARS  OLD,  AND  THE  PRODUCT   OF  A 
SINGLE  TREE,  IN  ORCHARD  OF  EDWARD    VAN  ALSTYNE,  KINDERHOOK, 

N.  Y. 

reduced  to  a  minimum,  also  in  order  that  the  branches  may  be  so 
formed  as  to  carry  the  fruit  with  the  least  danger  from  breaking. 

2.  To  remove  diseased  or  broken  twigs  or  branches  and  superflu- 
ous growth. 

3.  To  allow  light  and  air  to  penetrate,  thus  reducing  the  dangers 
from  fungous  troubles,  increasing  the  color,  and  at  the  same  time 
making  thorough  spraying  possible. 

F830] 


PRUNING  831 

Other  reasons  may  occur  to  the  experienced  orchardist,  yet  I  am 
sure  a  careful  analysis  of  the  situation  will  show  that  they  arc 
nearly  all  embraced  in  the  above  trinity.  This  question  and  the 
answers  imply  that  the  pruning  should  never  be  done  merely  from 
habit  or  because  it  is  a  part  of  orchard  practice,  but  only  for 
specific  reasons. 

MOST  TREES  OVERPRUNED 

Taking  the  orchards  as  a  whole  the  country  over,  I  am  sure  that 
there  is  too  much  rather  than  too  little  pruning.  This  is  true  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  frequently  we  see  orchards  containing  so  many 
dead  and  diseased  branches  and  the  living  ones  so  thick  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  the  fruit  ever  attaining  size  or  color. 
Not  infrequently  the  infected  limbs  are  the  result  of  unwise 
pi-lining,  and  when  such  orchards  are  taken  in  hand  they  are  likely 
to  be  so  over  pruned  as  to  destroy  in  part  or  as  a  whole  their  future 
productiveness.  A  safe  and  wise  rule  to  follow  is  never  to  take  out 
a  branch  or  twig  without  a  good  reason.  When  once  removed  it 
can  never  be  put  back,  but  if  left  it  can  be  removed  at  any  time ; 
in  a  word,  prune  as  little,  not  as  much,  as  possible.  At  the  same 
time,  grow  and  maintain  a  symmetrical  and  well-balanced  tree,  free 
from  disease  and  mutilated  branches  and  superfluous  growth,  such 
as  "  suckers,"  or  water  sprouts,  and  one  that  is  left  open  enough  to 
allow  free  circulation  of  light  and  air. 

No  one  can  prune  intelligently  unless  he  is  gifted  with  imagina- 
tion. He  must  be  able  to  form  a  mental  picture  not  only  of  how 
the  tree  will  appear  immediately  after  pruning,  but  also  of  what 
its  form  and  general  condition  will  be  a  decade  hence. 

PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 

Following  the  statement  of  these  general  principles,  I  will  take 
up  in  logical  order  the  matter  of  pruning,  beginning  with  the 
young  tree.  This,  too,  has  usually  been  overdone.  One  must 
consider  the  age  of  a  tree  and  its  variety  as  well  as  the  vigor 
or  the  lack  of  it.  A  yearling  can  frequently  be  trimmed  to  a  whip 
or  single  stalk  to  advantage,  since  comparatively  little  growth  has 
to  be  removed,  and  danger  of  shock  to  the  tree  is  avoided.  The  root 
system  in  such  trees  is  small- and  does  not  require  the  same  amount 
of  leaf  surface  to  sustain  it  as  does  an  older  tree.  It  should  always 


832  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  tree  must  be  sustained  entirely 
from  the  air  through  its  leaves  until  the  threadlike  fibers  start 
from  the  roots  and  can  obtain  sustenance  from  the  soil.  Older 
trees,  therefore,  should  obviously  not  be  pruned  in  this  way; 
neither  is  it  wise  to  cut  them  back  severely. 

The  top,  of  course,  should  not  be  out  of  proportion  to  the  roots. 
The  most  approved  present-day  practice  is  to  remove  injured  roots 
or  twigs  and  shorten  branches  unduly  long,  but  otherwise  to  leave 
the  top  untouched.  If  one  can  devote  the  time  to  this  work  at  the 
proper  season,  much  of  the  shaping  and  training  can  be  done  with 
the  thumb  and  finger  in  pinching  and  rubbing  off  embryo  buds  or 
branches.  Experiments  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  with  various  kinds  of  young  trees  plainly  indicate  the 
soundness  of  the  above  advice.  From  year  to  year  the  same  general 
line  of  pruning  should  be  followed.  It  is  surely  not  good  business 
to  tax  the  soil  to  grow  wood  to  be  cut  off.  This  emphasizes  the 
unwisdom  of  so  forcing  the  young  tree  during  its  formative  period 
as  to  result  in  a  rank,  succulent  growth  which  must  be  removed  in 
order  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  top-heavy.  Furthermore, 
such  forcing  tends  to  postpone  the  period  of  fruitage.  Like  men 
and  women,  trees  become  creatures  of  habit,  and  by  forced  feeding 
and  pruning  they  may  get  into  the  growing  rather  than  the  bearing 
habit.  Most  varieties  of  apples  bear  their  fruit  on  two-year-old 
wood  and  on  the  terminal  buds.  To  cut  back  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  destroy  this  wood  and  these  buds  certainly  prevents  fruiting, 
while  to  cut  back  the  ends  of  the  young  limbs  is  to  remove  the 
terminal  buds  and  induce  a  rosette  growth,  or  cluster  of  twigs,  at 
the  place  of  cutting,  a  most  undesirable  condition. 

LOW-HEADED   TREES 

The  height  of  the  first  or  lower  branches  should  be  determined 
at  the  time  of  setting,  as  the  distance  from  the  ground  at  which 
they  are  started  will  remain  the  same  during  the  life  of  the  tree. 
The  importance  of  low  heading  is  my  warrant  for  a  slight  digres- 
sion from  the  real  subject  of  pruning  to  state  reasons  for  such 
heading.  By  a  low-headed  tree  I  mean  that  in  upright  growers, 
such  as  the  Baldwin,  the  first  branches  will  be  between  two  and 
three  feet  from  the  ground,  and  those  like  the  Greening  that  are 


833 


more  spreading  in  their  habit,  about  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
ground.  Trees  so  headed  can  be  much  more  economically  and 
thoroughly  sprayed,  and  all  orchard  operations  other  than  cultiva- 
tion can  be  done  more  easily,  a  fact  particularly  true  in  the  case  of 
picking.  Such  trees  are  also  less  liable  to  injury  from  the  wind; 
and  dropped  fruit  suffers  little  injury  by  falling.  Furthermore,  all 
evidence  goes  to  show  that  they  bear  earlier  than  a  high-headed 
tree.  Sometimes  the  objection  urged  is  that  they  cannot  be  so  well 
cultivated,  but  this  is  more  seeming  than  real.  In  order  to  go  very 
close  to  the  tree,  the  branches  must  be  so  high  that  a  horse  can  pass 
under  them  without  striking  the  hames.  Eventually  all  such  lower 


FK..  224. —  (JuKKMM,    TI;I:K    22    YEAKS    OLD,    1 1  KAI>KI>    For'n    FKKT    FROM 
GROUND,  ON   FARM  OF  EDWARD  VAX  ALSTYXE,  KIXDERIIOOK,  N".  Y. 

branches  decay  and  must  be  removed,  with  the  result  that  all 
trees  headed  thus  high  become  top-storied  and  make  undesirable 
stock. 

The  writer  has  done  more  injury  to  his  trees  by  very  close  work- 
ing than  he  has  realized  benefit  from  the  practice.  With  modern 
orchard  tools,  cultivation  can  be  done  under  the  low-headed  tree 
as  close  as  is  necessary.  After  the  branches  cover  the  ground  little 
will  grow  under  them ;  and,  in  any  event,  deep  cultivation  close  to 
the  tree  is  always  to  be  avoided. 


834  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

PRUNING  IN  SECOND  AND  IX  SUBSEQUENT  YEARS 
By  a  system  of  pruning  that  inclines  the  tree  to  an  upright 
growth  with  fruit  spurs  toward  the  base  of  the  main  branches,  and 
one  that  is  assisted  by  the  natural  tendency  of  trees  to  grow  in 
such  a  direction,  a  symmetrical  and  productive  tree  can  readily  be 
obtained.  If  pruning  during  the  growth  period  has  been  such  as 
to  leave  a  symmetrical  tree  free  from  surplus  branches,  the  prun- 
ing will  consist  chiefly  in  removing  annually  small  interlocking 
branches,  and  in  shortening  overambitious  ones,  or  such  as  would 
eventually  make  the  tree  too  high.  In  the  best  regulated  orchards 
there  will  occasionally  be  broken,  diseased,  or  dead  branches. 
These,  of  course,  should  be  removed  both  from  the  tree  and  from 
the  orchard,  for  in  either  case  their  presence  is  likely  to  become  a 
source  of  infection.  Pruning  should  be  an  annual  operation,  not  a 
spasmodic  one.  The  reasons  are  obvious.  It  should  be  done  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  fruit  buds  are  distributed  over  the  whole  limb 
rather  than  on  the  extremities,  as  the  tree  will  then  carry  its 
burden  of  fruit  much  better.  It  will  also  be  found  that  fruit  on 
the  interior  branches  of  the  tree  will  stand  untoward  conditions 
when  that  on  the  outside  is  destroyed.  If  the  tree  is  kept  properly 
open,  such  interior  fruit  will  not  lack  sufficient  color.  In  New 
York  'State  with  its  hot  summers,  the  tree  with  the  close  rather  than 
the  open  top  is  to  be  desired.  Spaces  that  are  too  open  may  be 
gradually  filled  by  the  judicious  training  of  neighboring  branches. 
Occasionally  a  water  sprout  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  although 
the  latter  never  makes  a  desirable  branch,  since  its  upright  growth 
renders  it  liable  to  breaking  or  blowing  out,  and  its  fruit  spurs  are 
too  far  apart. 

THINNING 

In  the  case  of  neglected  or  too  closely  planted  trees,  thinning  is 
frequently  necessary,  but  at  the  same  time  serious  injury  is  often 
done  by  unwise  or  undue  cutting.  Too  often  if  there  is  too  much 
wood  an  entire  limb  is  cut  out.  While  this  reduces  the  bearing 
surface,  it  does  not  reduce  the  number  of  fruit  spurs  on  the  limbs 
remaining.  They  are  then  more  likely  to  overbear  and  break 
later;  besides,  unsightly  gaps  are  left.  The  removal  of  a  large 
limb  is  always  a  shock  to  the  tree,  and  often  results  in  permanent 
injury.  This  is  certain  to  be  the  case  if  a  large  surface  is  left 
exposed  where  bacteria  and  diseased  fungi  may  find  lodging,  also 


PRUNING 


835 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


if  a  stub  is  left  or  if  the  cut  is  too  close  to  the  main  body  of  the  tree. 
When  large  limbs  must  be  removed,  the  cut  should  be  made 
slightly  above  the  branch  or  trunk  from  which  the  limb  is  removed, 
but  not  high  enough  to  leave  a  stub,  the  cut  being  made  so  as  to 
leave  as  little  exposed  surface  as  possible  and  in  a  slightly  sloping 
direction  in  order  to  shed  water.  A  most  excellent  plan  is  to  cover 
the  wound  immediately  with  lime  and  sulphur  containing  a  con- 
siderable sediment,  which  acts  as  a  disinfectant  and  as  a  protectant 
as  well. 


FIG.  226. —  GREENING    TREE    IMPROPERLY    PRUNED;    TOO    MUCH    OF    CEXTEH 
REMOVED.  IN  ORCHARD  OF  EDWARD  VAX  ALSTYXE  &  Sox,  KIXDERHOOK,  X.Y. 

When  trees  are  too  close,  limbs  are  often  shortened  —  a  practice 
that  at  best  is  of  doubtful  merit,  for,  unless  there  are  twigs  left 
beyond  the  cut  to  draw  the  sap,  the  wound  will  never  heal  and  the 
limb  will  begin  to  die  from  the  cut  inward.  Uusually  it  is  much 
better  to  remove  an  entire  tree,  since  the  roots  will  be  as  much  too 
close  below  the  ground  as  the  branches  are  above  it.  For  a  year  or 


PRUNING  837 

two  there  will  be  a  slight  decrease  in  bearing  wood,  but  this  will 
!><•  more  than  compensated  by  the  better  si/e  and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  fruit  on  the  trees  remaining.  The  wisdom  of  such  a 
course  has  been  proved  in  many  New  York  orchards  where  this 
kind  of  thinning  has  been  done. 

CUTTING    BACK,    OR    "  DEHORNING  " 

Cutting  back  is  often  recommended  for  high  trees  that  are 
difficult  to  spray  and  in  which  one  must  ascend  toward  heaven  in 
order  to  gather  the  fruit.  At  best  this  process  is  but  a  makeshift. 


FIG.  227. —  HIGH-HEADED  APPLE  TREES,  GO  YEARS  OLD  —  SPITZENBURG  AT 
THE  LEFT  —  GREENING  AT  THE    RIGHT.    IN  THE  ORCHARD  OF  EDWARD  VAN 
ALSTYNE,  KINDERHOOK,  N.  Y. 

If  the  tree  is  high-headed  —  and  such  trees  usually  are — there 
will  be  little  bearing  surface  left  after  the  top  is  removed,  as  may 
easily  be  seen  from  the  tree  shown  in  Fig.  227.  If  the  dehorning 
is  severe,  the  tree  will  eventually  die.  Usually  it  is  better  economy 
to  "  lay  the  axe  at  the  root  of  the  tree,"  and  devote  one's  energies 
to  a  young  tree  properly  trained  from  its  youth  up.  I  would  not, 
however,  be  understood  as  saying  that  trees  may  not  be  so  pruned 
as  to  reduce  the  height  of  the  top  and  to  induce  a  more  spreading 
growth.  In  many  cases  this  may  be  done  by  heading  in  the  side 


838  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

branches,  so  as  to  keep  the  fruiting  surface  toward  the  center  of 
the  tree.  In  such  and  all  other  pruning,  the  variety  must  always 
be  taken  into  account. 

TIME  OF  PRUNING 

Here,  as  always,  certain  underlying  principles  must  be  kept  in 
mind.  Pruning  when  the  tree  is  dormant  always  induces  wood 
growth.  The  sap  is  stored  in  the  roots  in  proportion  to  the  top  of 
the  previous  year.  If  a  part  of  the  top  is  removed  when  the  tree  is 
dormant,  the  sap  must  be  distributed  in  the  wcod  remaining,  and 
a  more  vigorous  growth  must  necessarily  result.  This  is  illustrated 
by  the  number  of  water  sprouts  on  a  tree  that  has  been  severely 
pruned.  Nature  is  always  working  to  preserve  a  proper  balance; 
when  man  destroys  wood  growth,  Nature  makes  a  supreme  effort  to 
supply  what  has  been  lost. 

When  the  tree  is  in  full  leaf,  the  sap  being  distributed  as 
Nature  intended,  pruning  has  a  tendency  to  induce  fruiting.  The 
shock  to  the  tree  at  that  time  is  greater.  Just  as  in  the  case  of 
amputating  the  limb  of  a  man,  the  shock  is  much  less  if  the 
patient  has  been  quiet  with  little  blood-producing  food  than  if 
his  arteries  and  veins  are  full  of  blood  pumped  from  the  heart; 
so  in  the  case  of  a  tree.  Another  law  of  Nature  is  to  reproduce. 
When  life  is  threatened  in  animal  or  plant,  the  reproductive 
powers  become  more  active  in  order  that  the  species  may  be 
preserved.  With  these  facts  in  mind  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 
in  the  case  of  a  weak  tree  or  variety,  or  one  bearing  heavily, 
where  wood  growth  is  desirable,  winter  pruning  —  and  it  may  be 
severe  pruning  —  is  the  proper  course.  On  the  other  hand,  for  a 
tree  growing  too  much  wood  or  being  like  the  barren  fig  tree 
at  the  time  of  fruitage,  pruning  when  dormant  or  severe  pruning 
only  increases  the  difficulty.  In  such  cases,  summer  pruning  may 
be  desirable,  but  they  are  the  exception,  not  the  rule.  Usually  most 
of  the  pruning  may  be  done  after  the  foliage  has  dropped,  at 
which  season  the  right  sort  of  labor  is  more  easily  obtained,  since 
other  work  is  not  pressing.  It  is  also  much  simpler  to  determine 
what  to  take  out  at  this  time,  and  the  bark  does  not  slip  so  easily. 
However,  I  should  prefer  not  to  prune  until  the  wood  is  thoroughly 
hardened  for  the  winter  or  when  the  weather  is  extremely  cold  and 
the  trees  are  full  of  frost 


PRUNING 


839 


TREE    SURGERY 

In  an  article  of  tins  character  I  cannot  refrain  from  warning 
my  readers  against  the  professional  (  ?)  tree  surgeon  or  butcher. 
Such  are  in  evidence  in  every  community,  urging  their  services 
on  the  unwary  at  a  price  not  much  lower  Iliaii  that  charged  by  the 
local  horse  doctor.  I  have  seen  productive  orchards  ruined  by 
these  men  whose  ruthless  slaughter  of  bearing  wood  indicated 
cither  their  ignorance  or  a  desire  that  they  might  make  a  show. 
"  Verily  they  have  their  reward.'7  At  other  times  they  class  them- 


FIG.  228. —  SIDE  AND  FRONT  VIEWS 
OF  A  PROPERLY-MADE  CUT.  THE 
BULGE  AT  THE  BASE  OF  THE 
BRANCH  HAS  BEEN  REMOVED, 
LEAVING  NO  STUB.  THIS  WOUND 
WOULD  HEAL  RAPIDLY. 

(Copied  from  Report  of  Proceedings  of 
Me  Western  New  York  Horticultural 
Society,  1911.) 

selves  as  "healers,"  and  at  great  expense  remove  decayed  wood 
and  pour  in,  not  "  oil  and  wine  "  as  did  the  good  Samaritan,  but 
a  mixture  of  concrete.  Only  in  the  case  of  some  choice  tree  whicii 
it  is  desirable  to  preserve  for  sentimental  reasons  is  this  practice 
to  be  recommended,  rarely  if  ever  for  economic  ones.  In 
some  cases  the  money  expenses  in  work  of  this  kind  would  have 
"fed  .the  hungry  and  clothed  the  naked."  Such  tree  surgeons 
belong  in  the  class  with  those  who  sell  peach  trees  grafted  on  oak 
roots  to  make  them  "  hardy  "  and  with  others  who  insert  a  plug 
of  sulphur  into  the  trunk  of  a  tree  at  two  dollars  per  iu  order  to 
render  it  free  evermore  from  the  depredations  of  insects.  All  of 


840 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


them  deserve  to  be  in  the  class  "  outside  the  gate  with  the  dogs, 
sorcerers,  and  whosoever  loveth  and  maketh  a  lie." 


ROOT  PRUNING 


Not  infrequently  advice  is  given,  setting  forth  the  advantages  of 
root  pruning,"  but  merely  to  set  the  seal  of  my  disapproval  on  the 
practice  have  I  introduced  the  subject  here.  It  is  justifiable  only 


FIG.  229. —  IMPROPER  CUTTING  OF  LIMB  (LEFT). 
PROPER  CUTTING  OF  LIMB  (EIGHT).  THE 
STUB  IN  THE  FORMER  CASE  WILL  NEVER 
HEAL.  THE  DECAY  OF  SUCH  STUBS  USUALLY 
EXTENDS  TO  THE  HEARTWOOD. 

(Copied  from  Report  of  Proceeding*  of  the  Western 
Xctc  York  Horticultural  Society,  1911.) 


when  broken  or  injured  roots  are  removed  before  setting  yning 
trees,  and  when  the  ends  of  main  roots  are  cut  slantingly  in  order 
that  they  may  rest  upon  the  earth  instead  of  projecting  into  it. 
From  these  shortened  ends,  root  hairs  will  quickly  start,  from 
which  the  tree  may  obtain  sustenance.  In  other  cases  our  advice  on 
root  pruning  is  the  same  as  that  given  by  Hoyle  in  bridge  whist  as 
to  trumping  the  trick  of  one's  partner — "Don't!  "  I  have  seen 
most  serious  injury  immediately  follow  deep  plowing  when  large 
rjoots  were  broken ;  and  late  spring  plowing,  which  destroys  many 
of  the  feeding  rootlets,  is  always  to  be  condemned.  While  it  is 
true  that  a  severe  breaking  or  cutting  of  roots  in  a  neglected 
orchard  is  sometimes  followed  by  abundant  fruiting,  such  fruiting 
is  the  supreme  effort  of  Nature  to  reproduce,  and  it  is  usually 


I'KT.M.XC;  841 

accomplished  at  the  expense  of  the.  life  or  future  usefulness  of 
the  tree. 

PRUNING  TOOLS 

Pruning  tools  are  few  and  inexpensive.  Always  in  evidence 
among  them  is  the  saw.  An  implement  with  fine  teeth  should  be 
used  for  small  trees  and  for  large  trees  a  somewhat  coarser  one 
with  a  considerable  set,  and  a  narrow  back  in  order  that  it  will 
not  strike  branches  above  when  the  branch  below  is  severed.  It 
should  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  it  ought  to  be  sharp,  not  only 
because  much  better  work  can  be  done,  but  also  because  a  saw 
that  is  dull  will  have  the  effect  of  putting  the  user  in  the  same 
condition.  With  it  his  work  will  be  drudgery,  rather  than  intelli- 
gent effort  resulting  from  a  mental  picture  of  trees  "  bearing  fruit 
after  their  kind  "  before  him. 

Clippers  are  of  questionable  merit,  for  although,  with  them 
time  may  be  gained,  nice  work  is  lost,  since  it  is  difficult  to  make 
a  smooth,  close  cut  with  them.  The  clippers  on  an  elongated 
handle  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  cutting  back  or  removing  twigs 
too  high  to  be  reached,  but  nevertheless  one  must  remember  the 
danger  of  the  rosette  end  where  the  cut  is  not  made  close  to  a 
bud.  A  sharp,  stout  priming  knife  is  to  be  preferred  and  occupies 
second  place  after  the  saw.  Such  a  knife  should  always  be  the 
companion  of  the  orchardist  when  he  walks  abroad  among  his 
trees.  The  chisel  bar  for  removing  suckers  is  a  good  tool  in  the 
hands  of  a  careful  man,  but  otherwise  it  is  "  a  sword  in  the  hands 
of  a  child." 

There  is  only  one  place  for  the  axe  as  an  orchard  tool  and  that  is 
to  cut  down  a  tree  or  trim  out  several  branches.  A  wheel  ladder 
is  very  convenient  and  desirable  for  trimming  the  outside  of  trees. 

CONCLUSION 

We  should  so  order  all  our  pruning  operations  as  to  engender 
fruitfulness  and  longevity  as  well  as  beauty  in  our  trees,  keeping 
in  mind  the  thought  of  Pope: 

"  Like  leaves  of  trees  the  race  of  man  is  found, 
Now  green  in  youth,  now  wilting  on  the  ground; 
Another  race  to  follow,  the  spring  supplies; 
They  fall  successive  and  successive  rise/' 


INSECTS  PARTICULARLY  AFFECTING  THE  APPLE 

DR.  E.  P.  FELT,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 
State  Entomologist 

Insect  pests  lay  heavy  taxes  upon  the 
fruit  grower.  No  part  of  a  tree  is  ex- 
empt from  injury;  the  flower,  the  fruit, 
the  leaf,  the  twig,  the  branch,  or  even  the 
root  may  be  destroyed  or  at  least  seri- 
ously weakened  by  insects.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions,  the  production  of  satis- 
factory fruit  without  fighting  the  natural 
enemies  of  trees  ig  almost  unthinkable. 
Young  orchards  must  be  protected  from 
borers,  plant  lice,  and  scale  insect  if  one  would  obtain  satisfactory 
growth,  and  the  crop  of  fruiting  trees  is  subject  to  material  de- 
preciation in  value  through  the  work  of  the  codling  moth,  the 
apple  maggot,  and  the  red  bugs. 

The  methods  employed  for  the  control  of  insects  should  be 
planned  so  as  to  aid  in  preventing  or  checking  fungous  infection, 
since  it  is  frequently  possible  to  obtain  a  double  benefit  by  spray- 
ing with  a  combined  insecticide  and  fungicide.  As  a  general 
rule,  if  one  is  necessary,  the  other  should  be  added  to  the  spray, 
because  under  such  circumstances  additional  protection  is  se- 
cured for  the  bare  cost  of  the  extra  materials.  Generally  speak- 
ing, there  is  no  better  poison  than  a  good  grade  of  arsenate  of 
lead,  and  no  better  contact  insecticide  than  a  lime-sulphur  wash 
or  a  tobacco  extract.  Oils  should  be  used  on  dormant  trees  only 
when  necessary.  The  bordeaux  mixture  and  the  dilute  lime- 
sulphur  wash  are  deservedly  favorite  fungicides. 

The  apple  tree  and  its  fruit  are  subject  to  attack  by  numerous 
insect  enemies.  Scientists  have  even  listed  approximately  four 
hundred  species  as  occurring  on  this  tree.  Fortunately,  however, 
comparatively  few  are  serious  pests,  and  it  is  our  plan  to  discuss 
only  the  more  important  insect  enemies. 

[842] 


INSECTS  PARTICULARLY  AKKKCTINQ  THE  APTLK 


843 


SAN    JOSE    SCALE 

The  San  Jose  scale,  Aspidi- 
otus  perniciosus  Comst.,  is  well 
established  in  various  sections 
of  the  state.  It  is  easily  recog- 
ni/ed  by  the  dark  grayish  or 
yellowish  areas  on  the  bark, 
caused  by  the  masses  of  old 
scales  or  by  the  grayish  black 
of  the  young  scales.  The  full- 
grown,  insect  is  nearly  circular, 
with  a  diameter  of  approxi- 
mately one-sixteenth  of  an  inch, 
grayish,  and  with  a  central, 
darker  nip(  e.  The  smaller 
scales  are  about  half  the  size 
and  are  nearly  black,  while  the 
crawling  young  appear  to  the 
naked  eye  as  minute,  yellowish 
specks. 

The  most  characteristic  sign 
of  infestation  by  this  insect  is 
the  dark  reddish  or  magenta 
stain  in  the  greenish  tissues  of 
the  fruit,  the  leaves,  or  the 
inner  bark,  as  the  case  may  be. 
With  the  apple  an  infestation 
is  most  likely  to  appear  on  the 
fruit. 

The  scale  insect  winters  in  a 
partly  grown  condition.  On 
tlio  approach  of  warm  weather  vital  activities  are  resumed,  and 
crawling  young  begin  to  appear  toward  the  last  of  June.  The 
females  continue  to  produce  young  for  a  period  of  about  six 
weeks,  each  averaging  about  four  hundred,  or  from  nine  to  ten 
every  twenty-four  hours.  The  life  cycle  is  completed  in  from 
thirty-three  to  forty  days  and,  practically  speaking,  there  is  al- 
most continuous  breeding  from  the  time  the  young  appear  in  the 
latter  part  of  June  until  frosts  check  the  process  in  the  fall. 


FIG.  230. — .SAN  JOSE  SCALE.  TWIG 
BADLY  INFECTED,  SHOWING  THE 
IRREGULAR,  CIRCULAR  HOLES 
MADE  BY  THE  PARASITES,  EN- 
LARGED FOUR  DIAMETERS 


844 


THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


This  pest  occurs  on  a  large  number  of  trees  and  shrubs,  dis- 
playing a  marked  preference  for  the  peach,  the  Japanese  quince, 
and  certain  varieties  of  apple,  especially  Ben  Davis  and  Greening. 

Several  natural  enemies  prey  011  the  San  Jose  scale,  notably  a 
small,  black  lady  beetle,  SimiUa  miseUa  Lee.,  and  some  extremely 
minute  and  recently  discovered  four-wirged  parasites,  especially 
Prospaltella  perniciosi  Tower.  The  presence  of  the  latter  is  most 
easily  recognized  by  the  irregular,  circular  holes  made  by  the 
insects  as  they  escape  through  the  protecting  scale.  These  para- 
sites may  destroy  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  pests,  al- 
though present  conditions  do  not  justify  relying  to  any  great  ex- 
tent on  their  good  offices. 


FIG.  231. —  COMMON  SCALE  INSECTS:  (A) 
APPLE  TREE  BARK  LOUSE;  (B)  SCURFY 
BARK  LOUSE;  (c)  FEMALE,  AND  (D) 
MALE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  of  controlling  the  San  Jose 
scale  is  by  thorough  applications  of  a  lime-sulphur  wash  diluted 
to  about  4.5  degrees  Baume  and  applied  during  the  dormant 
season,  preferably  late  in  the  spring  just  before  the  buds  start, 
or,  under  certain  conditions,  prior  to  the  showing  of  the  pink  in 
the  blossom  buds.  This  very  late  spraying  is  advisable  only  when 
there  is  an  infestation  by  led  bugs,  and  it  is  desired  to  destroy 
the  young  of  these  pests  when  spraying  for  scale.  A  delayed 
treatment  of  this  character,  to  which  nicotine  is  added,  is  very 
serviceable  in  checking  the  latter  and  plant  lice  as  well  as  red 
bugs. 

OYSTER-SHELL    SCALE    AND    SCURFY    SCALE 

There  are  two  common,  occasionally  abundant,  scale  insects, 
one  of  which  is  the  oyster-shell  scale,  Lepidosaphes  ulmi  Linn.,  a 


I.XSKCTS     I'AKTH   TI.AULY     Al-KKCTI.\<;    TIIK    Al'l'LK 


845 


light  brown  oyster-shell-shaped  scale  with  a  length  of  about  one- 
ten  tli  of  an  inch.  This  insect  is  sometimes  so  abundant  as  to 
fairly  incrust  limbs,  particularly  of  young  trees.  The  winter  is 
passed  in  the  egg  stage,  the  minute,  yellowish  young  appearing 
the  latter  part  of  May  or  early  in  June. 

The  other  common  species,  the  scurfy  scale,  Chionaspis  furfura 
Fitch,  is  a  snow-white  or  grayish,  irregular,  somewhat  larger 
scale  than  the  one  just  mentioned.  It  likewise  winters  in  the  egg 
stage,  the  purplish  young  appearing  the  latter  part  of  May  or 
early  in  June. 


FIG.  232. —  APHIS  APPLES  SHOWING   CHARACTERISTIC   DWARFING  AND 

DEFORMATION 

Both  of  these  species  are  usually  well  controlled  in  orchards 
systematically  sprayed  for  San  Jose  scale.  In  case  a  few  trees 
are  seriously  infested,  a  thorough  application  of  any  good  contact 
insecticide  should  be  made  at  the  time  the  young  are  crawling. 


846  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

APHIDS,    OR   PLANT    LICE 

Three  species  of  plant  lice  occur  commonly  on  apple  trees ; 
namely,  the  European  grain  aphis.  Aphis  avence  Fabr.,  the  green 
apple  aphis,  Aphis  mall  Fabr.,  and  the  rosy  apple  aphis,  Aphis 
malifolice  Fitch.  An  abundant  infestation  by  these  insects  may 
result  in  a  large  crop  of  small,  gnarly  "  ..phis  apples"  so  familiar 
to  some  growers.  All  three  winter  as  black  eggs,  and  their  appear 
on  the  trees  with  the  developing  leaves.  The  rosy  apple  aphis  is 
particularly  likely  to  be  injurious  in  fruiting  orchards,  while  the 
green  aphis  frequently  persists  throughout  the  summer  on  young 
trees.  There  appears  to  be  a  fairly  close  relation  between  serious 
outbreaks  of  plant  lice  and  cool,  unseasonable  weather  during  late 
spring  and  early  summer.  This  is  also  borne  out  by  the  fact  that 
aphis  injury  is  more  likely  to  be  serious  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Great  Lakes  than  in  places  remote  from  the  water,  where  higher 
temperatures  commonly  prevail. 

Extended  experiments,  conducted  under  the  direction  of  Pro- 
fessor Parrott  of  the  Geneva  Station,  have  shown  that  these  pests 
are  most  easily  controlled  by  early  spraying,  namely,  just 
after  the  buds  have  burst  and  before  the  leaves  have  developed  to 
any  extent.  A  good  contact  insecticide  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
provided  the  application  is  timely  and  thorough.  One  of  the  best 
preparations  is  a  nicotine  extract,  40  per  cent,  used  at  the  rate 
of  three-fourths  of  a  pint  to  100  gallons  of  water  to  which  from 
six  to  eight  pounds  of  a  cheap  soap  (preferably  whale-oil  soap)  is 
added  to  serve  as  a  spreader.  The  tobacco  extract  may  be  added 
directly  to  the  lime-sulphur  wash  when  used  either  as  a  late 
dormant  spray  or  in  a  more  dilute  fungicidal  solution,  in  which 
event  soap  is  undesirable.  Frequent  infestations  by  aphids  would 
be  sufficient  justification  for  delying  the  spraying  for  San  Jose 
scale  mentioned  above  and  adding  the  nicotine  in  an  effort  to  con- 
trol both  insects  with  one  treatment.  A  serious  aphid  infestation 
may  justify  special  applications  later  in  the  season. 

CODLING    MOTH 

The  codling  moth,  Carpocapsa  pomonella  Linn.,  is  the  parent 
of  the  common  apple  worm,  a  pest  that  may  infest  and  thus  seri- 
ously damage  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  or  more  of  the  crop, 
much  depending  on  local  conditions. 


INSECTS  PARTICULARLY   AFFKCTING  THE  AIM-LI-: 


847 


848  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

The  apple  worm  winters  in  a  tough,  silken  cocoon  usually 
located  in  an  oval  cell  under  the  rough  bark  of  trees.  The  cater- 
pillars transform  to  brown,  apparently  lifeless  pupae  in  late  April 
and  early  May,  and  the  moths  begin  to  emerge  and  continue  to 
appear  throughout  the  greater  part  of  June.  The  minute,  whitish 
eggs  are  deposited  largely  on  the  leaves,  although  under  certain 
conditions  they  may  be  found  more  abundant  on  the  young  fruit. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a  week,  and  consequently  worms  of  the 
first  brood  may  be  entering  the  fruit  from  early  in  June,  approxi- 
mately three  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall,  until  the  end  of  the 
month,  or  even  later.  Some  of  the  young  caterpillars  gnaw  a 
small  hole  in  the  side  of  the  fruit,  excavate  a  circular  gallery  with 
a  radius  of  approximately  one-eighth  inch,  and  then  desert  this 
cavity  and  make  a  second  entrance  at  the  blossom  end.  This 
appears  most  likely  to  occur  in  the  western  part  of  the  state 
during  late  June  and  early  July,  and  is  there  generally  known  as 
"side  worm"  injury.  The  caterpillars  require  about  four  weeks 
to  complete  their  growth,  at  which  time  they  desert  the  fruit, 
wander  to  a  sheltered  place,  spin  a  cocoon,  and  transform  to 
pupae.  In  about  two  weeks,  namely  the  last  of  July  or  in  August, 
another  brood  of  moths  may  appear.  These  in  turn  deposit  eggs 
that  hatch  in  due  time,  and  the  young  larvae  enter  the  side  of  the 
fruit,  particularly  wherever  two  apples  touch  or  a  leaf  hangs 
against  an  apple,  as  well  as  in  the  blossom  end. 

Experiments,  not  only  in  this  state  but  in  others  as  well,  have 
shown  that  approximately  three-fourths  of  all  the  wormy  apples 
are  entered  at  the  blossom  end ;  furthermore,  that  by  far  the  best 
results  in  control  work  are  obtained  by  spraying  with  a  poison 
(three  pounds  of  paste  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  water) 
as  soon  as  is  practical  after  the  dropping  of  the  blossoms  and 
before  the  green  calyx  lobes  have  closed  and  thus  made  it  impos- 
sible to  get  poison  into  the  calyx  cup.  Experiments  in  New  York 
State  have  shown  that  under  good  orchard  conditions,  with  fair 
and  thorough  commercial  spraying,  from  9  5  to  9  8  per  cent  of  worm- 
free  fruit  can  be  obtained  with  the  above-mentioned  treatment. 
This  indicates  the  importance  of  making  the  application  at  the 
time  indicated  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured,  particularly 
since  it  is  also  known  that  a  second  application  three  weeks  after 


INSECTS   PAI: TK TI.ARLY   AKKKCTI.NC;    riu-;   AIM-LI-; 


849 


0 
X 

o 

.,  55 
y,  2 

o  5 


•/:  o 


ll 


850 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


blossoming  is  only  about  one-half  as  effective.  There  is  a  pos- 
sibility, in  localities  where  side  worm  injury  is  particularly  preva- 
lent .during  early  July,  that  a  spraying  the  latter  part  of  June 
will  prove  helpful.  A  spraying  the  latter  part  of  July  is  fre- 
quently given  for  thq  special  purpose  of  checking  the  second  brood, 
although  in  this  state  experimental  data  do  not  indicate  a  very 
high  percentage  of  gain  from  this  practice;  where  fungous  dis- 


FIG.  234. —  SIDE  INJURY,  SHOWING  SMALL  CIRCULAR  SPOTS  WITH  CENTRAL 
HOLE,  PRODUCED  BY  YOUNG  CATERPILLARS  FROM  LATE-DEPOSITED  EGGS 
OF  THE  FIRST  BROOD 

eases  require  spraying,  as  intimated  above,  it  is  by  all  means  advis- 
able to  add  the  poison  and  thus  secure  additional  protection  at  a 
very  slight  increase  in  cost. 

In  sections  where  side  worm  injury  is  prevalent,  annual  spray- 
ing, whether  the  trees  be  fruited  or  not,  is  a  most  promising 
method  of  controlling  this  type  of  injury. 

KED  BUGS 

The  lined  red  bug,  Lygidea  mendax  Keut,  and  the  true 
bug,  Heteroccrdylus  malinus  Rent,  have  recently  attracted  mu( 


I.XSKCTS   PAKTHTLAKLY   AFKI:<'TI.\<;  TIIK  AIMMJ-;          851 

attention  because  of  the  serious  injuries  occurring  to  young  fruit, 
in  some  instances  nearly  half  the  set  in  an  orchard  being 
destroyed. 

The  earlier  signs  of  injury  are  found  in  the  indistinct,  reddish 
brown  spotting  of  the  more  tender  opening  or  recently  unfolded 
leaves.  As  the  foliage  ages,  the  discoloration  becomes  darker,  and 
after  a  time  the  central  portion  of  the  more  seriously  affected 
tissues  may  die  and  drop,  leaving  an  irregular  series  of  reddish- 
brown-margined  holes  in  the  somewhat  curled,  crumpled  leaves. 
At  first  affected  apples  show  a  slight  exudation  accompanied  by 
a  local  discoloration  and  hardening.  The  young  fruit  is  fre- 
quently pierced  to  the  core  and,  as  growth  continues,  depressions 
with?  pithy  centers  extending  deep  into  the  tissues  may  be  formed. 

Both  species  winter  as  eggs  deposited  in  the  smaller  twigs, 
those  of  the  true  red  bug  hatching  just  before  the  blossoms  open, 
and  those  of  the  lined  red  bug  about  a  week  later.  The  young 
bugs  remain  at  first  among  the  tender  developing  leaves,  and  as 
they  increase  in  size  begin  to  attack  the  developing  fruit,  pro- 
ducing the  effects  described  above. 

Kxperimental  and  practical  work  have  shown  that  young  red 
bugs  can  be  destroyed  with  a  nicotine  preparation,  like  that 
recommended  for  plant  lice.  In  case  the  pests  are  numerous  there 
should  be  a  spraying  just  before  the  blossoms  open.  In  some 
instances  this  may  be  combined  with  a  very  late  spray  for  San 
Jose  scale1,  and  then  nicotine  should  be  added  to  the  first  treat- 
ment for  the  codling  moth  and  particular  pains  taken  to  spray 
as  early  as  possible  after  the  dropping  of  the  blossoms,  in  order 
to  destroy  the  insects  before  they  have  increased  much  in  size. 

EARLY   LEAF   FEEDERS 

A  number  of  insects  may  be  grouped  under  this  head,  namely, 
the  apple  tent  caterpillar,  the  cankerworms,  the  bud  moth,  the 
case-bearers,  the  leaf  roller,  and  the  green  fruit  worm,  since  all  of 
these  begin  feeding  early  on  the  young  leaves. 

The  apple  tent  caterpillar  and  the  looping  cankerworms  are 
so  well  known  as  to  require  no  description.  The  bud  moth, 
Tmetocera  ocellana  Schiff.,  is  only  about  half  an  inch  long  when 
full  grown,  is  dark  brown  in  color,  and  has  a  darker  head.  It  is 
usually  found  in  a  webbed  retreat  among  partly  opened  leaves  or 


152 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


developing  blossoms.  The  two  case-bearers  are  easily  recognized 
bv  the  characteristic  cases,  that  of  the  cigar  case-bearer,  Coleo- 
plwra  iicirlierella  Fern.,  being  cigar-shaped,  while  the  pistol  case- 
bearer,  C.  malivoreHa,  Riley,  is  enclosed  in  a  pistol-shaped  shelter. 
Both  remain  exposed  011  the  leaves  and  although  small,  being  less 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  are  easily  seen.  The  leaf  roller, 
Ar chips  argyrospila  Walk.,  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  active,  light  green,  with  a  dark  brown  or  black  head,  and  may 


FIG.  236. —  APPLES  SERIOUSLY  INJURED  BY  THE  GREEN  'FRUIT   Womi 

be  found  in  loosely  curled  leaves  as  well  as  eating  into  the  fruit. 
The  green  fruit  worm,  Xylina  antennata  Walk.,  is  larger  and 
stouter,  has  a  light  green  head,  and  is  usually  marked  with  sev- 
eral distinct,  although  somewhat  broken,  longitudinal  white  lines. 
When  any  of  these  are  abundant  they  should  be  checked  by 
early  and  thorough  applications  of  a  poison,  such  as  arsenate  of 
lead,  about  three  pounds  of  the  paste  to  fifty  gallons  of  water 
being  used.  In  many  instances  the  first  spraying  for  the  codling 


INSECTS  PAETICULARLY  AFFECTTXG  THE  API-LK         853 


I 


i 


Fro.  237.—  WORK  OF  ROUND-HEADED  APPLE 
TREE  BORER  AT  BASE  OF  YOUNG  TRKE 


854  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW   YORK   STATE 

moth  is  sufficient  to  hold  the  other  pests  in  cheek ;  but,  when  such 
is  not  the  case  and  it  is  necessary  to  spray  for  San  Jose  scale,  the 
treatment  may  well  be  delayed  until  the  leaves  have  started  from 
the  buds,  when  poison  can  be  added  to  the  dormnn  spray  in 
order  to  destroy  the  leaf  feeders  while  they  .are  still  young1.  Satis- 
factory results  have  not  always  been  obtained  when  spraying  with 
a  poison  for  the  control  of  the  leaf  roller.  In  orchards  where 
the  pests  are  likely  to  be  numerous,  thorough  spraying  with  a 
miscible  oil  diluted  one  to  fifteen  has  been  advised  by  Professor 
Ilerrick  for  the  destruction  of  the  egg  masses,  the  application 
to  be  made  just  before  the  buds  open. 

BORERS 

Young  trees,  in  particular,  are  likely  to  suffer  from  attacks  by 
the  common  round-headed  apple  tree  borer,  Saperda  Candida 
Fabr.,  a  white,  legless  grub  that  displays  a  marked  preference  for 
the  base  of  the  trunk  and  is  usually  found  at,  or  a  little  below, 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  parent  beetle  is  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  and  is  a  rich  brown  in  color  with  broad,  creamy 
white,  longitudinal  stripes.  The  shy,  retiring  beetles  appear  in 
midsummer  but  are  seldom*  seen.  Systematic  examination*  of 
young  trees  in  both  spring  and  fall,  and  the  digging  out  of  the 
borers  by  the  judicious  use  of  a  knife  and  a  hooked  wire,  prove 
the  most  practical  methods  of  controlling  this  pest. 

Sickly  apple  trees  are  sometimes  badly  infested  and  occasionally 
destroyed  by  the  fruit-tree  bark  beetle,  Eccoptoyasier  rugulosus 
Ratz.,  a  small,  shining,  dark  brown,  or  nearly  black  bark  beetle 
that  enters  the  affected  wood  through  small  holes  in  the  bark  and 
produces  the  familiar  u  shot-hole  "  appearance.  This  insect  con- 
fines its  attacks  very  largely  to  sickly  and  dying  trees.  Inciden- 
tally it  is.  -a  more  serious  enemy  of  peach,  plum,  and  pear.  There 
may  be  two  broods  or-  generations  in  a  season,  and  the  most  obvious 
method  of  control  is  to  cut  out  and  burn  all  sickly  or  infested 
wood.  Trimmings  from  any  trees  liable  to  infestation  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  orchard,  since 
brush  piles  occasionally  become  breeding  centers  and  result  in 
injury  to  nearby  trees. 


SOME  OF  OUR  MOST  COMMON  APPLE  DISEASES 

II.    II.     \YlIETZEL 
Professor  of   Plant   Pathology,   Cornell  University,   Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

and 

LKX    K.    HKSLEU 
Assistant  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

Al'l'LK    S<  AH 

The  scab  disease  of  apples,  which  is 
caused  by  the  fungus,  Ventupiaincequcdis} 
is  by  far  the  most  common  and  destruc- 
tive disease  of  this  fruit  in  New  York 
State.  The  nature  of  the  losses  incurred 
explains  in  a  large  degree  why  the  trouble 
is  so  serious.  Ordinarily  the  reduction 
in  quality  of  the  fruit  due  to  this  disease 
is  considered  to  be  the  main  source  of  the 
loss.  While  this  is  important,  it  consti- 
tutes only  one  of  the  several  factors  involved. 

In  some  years,  as  for  example  in  1910,  early  scab  infection, 
when  not  controlled,  a'most  wholly  prevents  the  setting  of  fruit. 
On  the  other  hand,  where  a  fine  set  of  fruit  occurs,  the  apples 
are  liable  to  infections  during  all  stages  of  development.  In  case 
a. single  lesion  appears  on  a  young  apple,  its  growth  on  the  affected 
side  is  retarded  and  there  results  an  unsymmetrical  fruit.  Fre- 
quently fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  apples  are  scabby, 
which  means  little  or  no  returns  for  such  fruit  at  picking  time. 
Fruit  thus  affected  does  not  keep  so  well  in  storage,  the  scab  spots 
furnishing  an  easy  entrance  for  storage-rot  organisms,  such  as 
the  pink-rot  fungus. 

In  addition  to  the  immediate  effect  on  the  crop  of  the  current 
year  there  is,  in  case  of  severe  leaf  infection,  a  devitalizing  effect 
<>M  the  tree.  Reliable  figures  on  losses  from  this  disease  are  very 
difficult  to  obtain.  Such  figures  are  to  be  obtained  only  by  esti- 
mates based  upon  increased  profits  from  sprayed  orchards.  Since 
such  returns  almost  invariably  include  not  only  saving  from  scab, 

[855] 


856  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

but  also  from  codling  moth,  it  is  not  possible  to  separate  the  two 
very  satisfactorily.  It  has  been  conservatively  estimated  that 
the  state  of  New  York  alone  loses  over  $3,000,000  annually 
through  failure  -to  spray  for  these  destructive  pests. 

It  is  rather  generally  understood  by  growers  as  well  as  by 
scientists  that  the  apple  scab  is  caused  by  a  fungus.  This 
minute  organism  spends  the  winter  in  the  old  fallen  leaves  as 
partially  developed  fruiting  bodies  called  perithecia.  Under 
favorable  conditions  in  the  spring,  these  perithecia  forcibly  dis- 
chargej  their  spores  (ascospores)  into  the  air.  These  spores  are 
very  light  and  are  carried  by  slight  air  currents  to  the  openings 
buds.  This  process  of  ascospore  discharge  continues  for  a  period 
of  approximately  one  month,  beginning  about  the  time  the  blos- 
soms are  ready  to  open,  provided  (1)  that  conditions  have  been 
right  for  the  maturation  of  the  ascospores,  and  (2)  that  there  is 
rain  enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  moisture  for  the  discharge 
after  these  spores  are  ripe. 

The  first  activities  of  the  ascospores  take  place  on  the  opening 
leaves.  As  they  expand  from  the  blossom  bud,  their  lower  sur- 
faces are  first  to  be  exposed  to  the  spores  from  the  old  leaves  on 
the  ground.  Hence  it  may  be  seen  why  the  lower  sides  of  leaves 
surrounding  the  buds  are  first  to  show  signs  of  the  disease.  As 
long  as  the  leaves  are  on  the  tree  the  growth  is  very  superficial, 
the  fungus  living  in  the  outermost  portions  of  them.  Within  a 
short  time  after  the  spore  alights  on  a  leaf,  it  germinates  and 
penetration  is  effected.  Soon  there  appears  the  characteristic 
brownish  olivaceous  growth  of  the  parasite,  which  worms  spots 
with  indefinite,  fringed  margins.  Later,  summer  spores  are  de- 
veloped on  the  leaves  and  are  blown  to  other  leaves,  infecting 
both  the  upper  «and  lower  surfaces.  In  time  the  apples  have 
developed,  and  the  summer  spores  (conidia)  may  infect  them. 
Not  only  do  the  conidia  infect  young  fruit,  but  the  ascospores 
from  the  old  leaves  may  continue  to  infect  the  apples,  even  afte-r 
they  are  well  set.  The  fruit  pedicels  may  also  be  infected,  re- 
sulting in  a  general  failure  to  set  fruit. 

The  scab  spots  are  most  familiar  on  the  fruit,  where  they  are 
very  much  the  same  in  size,  shape,  and  color  as  they  are  on  the 
upper  leaf  surface,  although  perhaps  more  sharply  defined.  They 


SOMK  OF  Ouu  MOST  COMMON  APPLE   DISEASES         857 


Jj'io.  238. —  A    CLUSTER    OF    HALF-GROWN    APPLES    BADLY 


858  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

are  usually  numerous  about  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit.  The 
spots  show  a  whitish,  papery  margin  and  a  velvety  brown  center. 
As  they  grow  older  the  velvety  center  disappears,  exposing  a 
brown  corky  layer  beneath.  This  frequently  cracks  and  checks. 
Later  infections — that  is,  those  appearing  about  picking  time  or 
after  the  fruit  is  stored  —  are  very  different  in  appearance  from 
the  early  infections;  they  are  much  smaller,  being  mere  black 
specks. 

In  the  autumn  the  leaves  fall  to  the  ground,  taking  the  fungus 
with  them.  There  it  changes  from  its  superficial  habit  to  one 
involving  the  whole  leaf.  The  winter  fruiting  bodies  (the 
perithecia)  are  soon  developed,  in  which  condition  the  fungus 
again  lives  until  spring. 

Influence  of  the  \Veather  on  the  Disease 

It  is  clearly  understood,  then,  that  the  scab  is  a  fungous 
disease,  and  is  not  caused  by  weather  conditions.  To  be  sure,  the 
weather  is  the  most  important  environmental  factor  iiimienc- 
ing  the  disease,  but  unless  the  fungus  is  present  there  will  be  no 
scab.  The  weather  influences  the  disease  by  affecting  both  the 
fungus  and  the  apple  tree.  If  rain  falls  just  before  the  blossoms 
open,  the  mature  ascospores  are  discharged  and  infection  results 
on  young  leaves  and  pedicels.  If  the  ascospores  are  not  dis- 
charged by  the  rains  until  just  after  the  blossoms  open,  infection 
of  the  developing  fruits  occurs. 

If  these  first  infections  do  not  occur  within  a  month  after  the 
blossoms  begin  to  open,  it  is  likely  that  infections  will  be  few 
and  unimportant  during  the  season. 

Controlling  the  Disease 

In  controlling  scab  the  following  points  should  be  taken  into 
consideration:  (1)  the  fungus  winters  over  in  the  old  leaves  on 
the  ground;  (2)  the  spores  therefrom  are  discharged  at  about 
blossoming  time  during  a  period  of  a  month,  rain  being  necessary 
to  this  discharge;  (3)  the  opening  leaves  and  fruit  stalks  are  first 
liable  to  infection,  and  later  other  leaves  and  growing  fruits  are 
subject  to  it.  Plowing  under  the  old  leaves  which  harbor  the 
fungus  would  seem  advisable.  This  has  been  frequently  recom- 


SOME  OF  On;   MOST  COMMOX  AIM-I.K   DISKASES 


859 


860  THE  JJRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XKW  YORK  STATE 

mended,  and  the  practice  of  plowing  orchards  is  commendable; 
but  this  operation  alone  is  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  a  measure 
for  the  control  of  apple  scab.  Spraying  the  susceptible  parts 
before  the  spores  fall  upon  them  is  the  common  and  very  effective 
practice.  The  spraying  must  be  done  before  the  rains  and  not 
after,  since  moisture  conditions  the  discharge  and  germination  of 
spores  causing  the  trouble. 

Bordeaux  and  lime-sulphur  are  used  in  this  state,  the  latter 
being  more  extensively  employed;  bordeaux,  as  is  well  known, 
severely  russets  certain  standard  varieties,  particularly  in  wet 
seasons,  and  hence  is  objectionable.  Lime-sulphur,  testing  32 
degrees  Baume  at  a  1-40  strength,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  safe 
and  sure  fungicide. 

Make  the  first  application  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  but 
after  the  individual  blossoms  have  separated.  The  grower  should 
allow  a  period  of  only  two  or  three  days  in  which  to  administer 
this  application.  This  spraying  protects  the  fruit  stalks  and 
hence  prevents  a  loss  of  the  set  of  fruit.  Apply  the  same  fungi- 
cide later,  beginning  when  about  two-thirds  of  the  blossoms  have 
fallen.  This  application  protects  the  young  fruits  and  gives  a 
clean  crop.  A  third  application  is  necessary  only  when  the  sea- 
son is  rainy ;  this  is  made  about  ten  days  or  twro  weeks  after  the 
second  application,  depending  upon  the  rain  periods.  Likewise, 
a  fourth  spraying  is  frequently  essential  the  latter  part  of  July 
or  the  first  of  August,  the  grower  to  be  guided  by  the  weather 
conditions.  The  crop  of  fruit  may  be  clean  up  to  this  time  of 
year;  then,  should  the  application  be  omitted,  especially  if  the 
leaves  show  some  scab  in  the  spring,  the  fruit  may  become 
severely  infected  and  the  result  be  a  heavy  and  an  unnecessary 
loss. 

In  spraying,  a  high  pressure  of  150  to  200  pounds  should  be 
maintained.  A  fine,  driving  mist  should  be  sought ;  therefore, 
select  the  nozzle  accordingly.  If  the  grower  sprays  thoroughly 
and  at  the  right  time,  he  should  expect  to  obtain  95  per  cent  clean 
fruit  under  the  most  trying  conditions.  It  may  well  be  repeated 
that  all  applications  should  be  made  just  before  and  not  just 
after  rain  periods.  Recent  investigations  in  this  state  indicate 
that  dusting  with  finely  ground  sulphur  may  soon  supersede 


SOME  OF  OUR  MOST  COMMON  APPLE  DISEASES 


861 


spraying  in  the  control  of  apple  scab.  A  mixture  of  eighty  or 
ninety  parts  sulphur  to  ten  or  twenty  parts  powdered  lead  is  to 
l>c  regarded  as  most  effective.  Applications  are  to  be  made  at 
the  same  time  as  recommended  for  spraying. 

BLACK  ROT,  LEAK  SPOT  AM)  CA.XKKK  OF  THE  APPLE 

rl'h is  disease  which  is  caused  by  the 
fungus  Physalospora  cydonice,  is  per- 
haps best  known  to  Xew  York 
farmers  under  the  name  "  Xew 
York  apple-tree  canker."  Tho  above 
designation  is  assigned  and  used 
to  represent  more  nearly  the  nature 
of  the  trouble  in  its  attacks  on  the  va- 
rious parts  of  the  apple.  The  fungus 
not  only  produces  on  the  limbs  a  serious 
canker,  but  it  also  affects  the  fruit,  in- 
ducing a  black  rot,  and  attacks  the 
foliage,  producing  a  leaf  spot.  These 
three  forms  of  the  trouble  are  not  every- 
where equally  troublesome ;  in  this  state 
the  limb  injury  is  the  most  familiar 
and  also  the  most  dangerous  type  of 
this  disease.  Prominent  growers  and 
scientists  concur  in  the  opinion  that  tht 
Xew  York  apple  tree  canker  is,  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  state  at  least,  second 
in  economic  importance  only  to  the 
apple  scab. 

As  previously  stated,  the  canker  is 
caused  by  a  fungus.  It  may  live  about 
the  orchard  on  dead  twigs  in  the  brush 
pile,  or  it  may  feed  on  the  dead  parts 

<5f  a  great  variety  of  wild  and  cultivated  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  spores  of  the  fungus  may  be  present  for  a  time  on  the 
healthy  bark  and  may  even  prepare  to  enter  the  bark,  but 
actual  penetration  is  never  accomplished  until  an  injury  of 
some  sort  is  afforded.  The  fungus  does  not  seem  to  have  prefer- 
ence in  this  re.spect,  for  it  follows  frost  injury,  fire  blight,  apple 


FIG.  240.—  BLACK  ROT 
CANKER  ON  APPLE  LIMB. 
NOTICE  THE  PIMPLE-LIKE 
FRUIT  BODIES  COVERING 
THE  CANKERED  SURFACE 


$62  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 

rust,  insect  punctures,  bruises  made  by  the  orchardist,  and  so  on. 
Once  the  organism  is  assisted  in  its  entrance,  the  effects  of  its 
work  are  soon  evident.  On  the  bark,  the  first  signs  of  the  disease 
consist  of  a  slight  brown  area,  which  slowly  becomes  darker  and 
more  extended,  the  spot  taking  on  an  oval  shape,  the  longer 
diameter  being  parallel  to  that  of  the  main  axis  of  the  cankered 
limb.  Very  soon  the  surface  is  depressed  and  the  margin  shows 
a  crevice;  before  many  weeks  the  infected  area  exhibits  a  great 
many  small  dome-shaped  fruiting  bodies  of  the  pathogene,  which 
are  known  as  pycnidia,  and  contain  the  spores  of  the  fungus. 
Under  proper  conditions  of  moisture  these  spores  ooze  out  of  the 
pycnidia  and  are  washed  to  the  leaves  and  fruits  below,  resulting 
in  the  production  of  leaf  spot  and  black  rot.  These  forms  of  the 
disease,  however,  are  of  relatively  little  importance  in  New  York 
State. 

The  fungus  in  the  above  described  condition  passes  the  winter 
in  these  cankers.  In  the  spring  the  fungus  usually  starts  its  activi- 
ties again  by  its  spread  at  the  margin  of  the  old  canker  and  by  the 
dissemination  of  its  spores.  The  fungus  in  some  of  the  cankers 
dies  out  at  the  end  of  the  year ;  in  others  it  spreads  for  several 
years  in  succession,  there  being  produced  eventually  a  large  canker 
sometimes  several  feet  in  length. 

Control 

In  the  control  of  this  disease  there  are  several  things  to  be 
borne  in  mind :  (1)  The  fungus  cannot  be  eradicated  by  the  use  of 
sprays;  its  vegetative  parts  are  buried  in  the  host  tissues  and  are 
not  reached  by  any  known  fungicide.  (2) The  prevention  of 
wounds  and  the  protection  of  injured  surface®  by  means  of  fungi- 
cides are  logical  measures  to  practice.  (3)  Cankers  furnish  a 
hibernating  place  for  the  fungus,  and  dead  wood  may  also  hold 
the  parasite  for  several  months. 

With  these  points  as  a  basis,  the  following  means  of  control  are 
to  be  followed:  Remove  cankers  from  the  larger  and  more  valu- 
able limbs,  wherever  it  seems  desirable  and  profitable  to  save  such 
limbs.  Cut  out  all  diseased  parts,  bark  or  wood,  pointing  the  upper 
and  lower  ends  of  the  cut  and  making  the  edge  of  the  wound  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface,  and  dress  the  wound  with  coal-tar.  In 


SOME  OF  OUR  MOST  COMMON   APPLE  DISEASES          863 

those  cases  where  small  or  less  valuable  limbs  are  affected,  they 
may  be  cut  off  below  the  canker  and  very  close  to  the  parent 
branch.  This  procedure  also  applies  to  cases  where  affected  limbs 
are  nearly  or  wholly  girdled. 

The  recommendation  that  the  grower  should  plant  resistant 
varieties  to  avoid  cankers  offers  no  immediate  relief.  In  arrang- 
ing for  future  plantings,  however,  it  should  be  remembered  that  in 
.\e\v  York  State  the  Twenty  Ounce  is  notably  susceptible.  This 
variety,  above  all  others,  suffers  uniformly  from  the  effects  of  the 
Xc\v  York  apple-tree  canker.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  grow  this  variety  successfully,  but  wherever  it 
is  grown  its  protection  from  this  disease  becomes  a  matter  which 
is  burdensome,  even  to  the  most  vigilant  apple  grower. 

STIPPIN,   OPv   BITTER  PIT 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  fully  understood.  It  is  called 
stippin,  bitter  pit,  black  rot,  or  Baldwin  spot,  and  so  far  as  known, 
affects  only  the  fruit. 

Some  varieties  show  the  trouble  more  commonly  than  others. 
In  this  region,  for  example,  the  Baldwin  is  most  subject,  and  it 
is  the  belief  of  many  orchardists  that  only  this  variety  is 
affected.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  spots  occur  frequently  on 
the  Xorthern  Spy,  the  Rhode  Island,  the  Tompkins  King,  and 
less  commonly  on  some  other  kinds.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  that 
a  given  variety  may  suffer  considerably  in  one  locality,  and  may 
be  free  from  the  disease  in  another  region.  It  is  of  interest,  too, 
that  the  individuals  of  a  variety  show  wide  differences  in  the 
amount  of  the  trouble.  For  example,  the  apples  on  one  side,  or 
even  on  one  limb  of  a  single  tree  will  show  stippin,  whereas  fruits 
on  the  other  side  or  on  another  limb  remain  unaffected.  This 
resistance  of  a  group  of  individuals  belonging  to  a  susceptible 
variety  is  one  of  the  peculiar  and  interesting  characteristics  of  the 
malady. 

The  disease  is  know  the  world  over  and  occurs  under  certain 
conditions  in  practically  all  of  the  more  important  apple-growing 
districts  of  the  various  countries.  T^ew  York  appears  to  be  no 
exception ;  apples  in  this  state  are  highly  subject  to  the  trouble, 


864 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


and  the  losses  thus  incurred  are  frequently  of  considerable  mo- 
ment. Not  uncommonly  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  a  crop 
of  the  more  susceptible  kinds,  such  as  the  Baldwin,  is  either  wholly 
lost  or  the  fruit  reduced  to  a  condition  of  relatively  small  worth. 
Bitter  pit,  or  stippin,  usually  appears  on  the  fruit  at  or  near 
maturity.  It  is  not  primarily  a  storage  disease.  There  are  from 
a  few  to  many  spots  in  an  apple,  and  these  may  be  described  as 
follows :  The  areas  vary  in  size  from  mere  dots  to  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  or  more  in  diameter ;  they  are  roundish  in  outline ;  color 


FIG.  241. —  APPLE  SHOWING  CHARACTERISTIC  STIPPIN  OR  BITTER  PIT  SPOTS 

pale  to  dark  green,  or  ruddy  brown.  On  the  Baldwin  the  spots 
are  a  darker  red  than  the  surrounding  healthy  tissue.  The  affected 
areas  are  sunken  and  the  flesh  often  tastes  bitter,  hence  the  name 
bitter  pit.  Usually  the  spots  are  most  numerous  near  the  blossom 
end.  Their  general  appearance  is  not  unlike  that  of  hail-mark,  but 
the  skin  is  not  broken  in  any  way.  The  disease  is  not  infrequently 
mistaken  by  growers  for  the  spotting  caused  by  San  Jose  scale. 


SO.MK  OF  Oil:    MOST  COMMO.X    Ai'i-u-:    I  )ISKASKS 

If  the  fruit  be  cut  open,  the  flesh  under  the  pit  is  found  to  be 
dead,  brown,  dry  and  spongy,  and  extending  in  toward  the  core 
for  only  a  short  distance.  Sintered  throughout  the  flesh  are 
brown  spots,  which  have  no  direct  connection  with  the  .surface 
spots. 

As  previously  noted,  the  cause  of  this  peculiar  trouble  is  not 
fully  understood,  it  has  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated,  how- 
ever, that  stippin  is  not  a  mechanical  injury,  nor  is  it  due  to  the 
action  of  any  bacteria,  fungi  or  insects.  The  common  opinion  of 
those  who  have  investigated  the  disease  more  carefully  is  that  the 
injury  results  from  abnormal  distribution  of  water  through  the 
fruit.  As  to  the  nature  of  this  abnormal  distribution,  authori- 
ties are  not  wholly  agreed.  Therefore,  the  main  theories  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  poor  distribution  of  water  may  bring  about 
the  disease  should  be  noted;  there  are  four: 

1.  The  injury  results  from  an  extremely  rapid  transpiration  or 
loss  of  water  from  the  cells,  thus  bringing  about  a  concentration 
(•f  the  sap  and  the  hi  ling  of  those  cells  nearest  the  sap  tubes. 

2.  The  spots  result  from  the  death  of  groups  of  cells  because 
dryness  of  the  soil  early  in  the  growing  season  prevents  the  trans- 
[ortation   of  mineral  matter    (food)    to  these  cells;   hence   they 
starve  and  die. 

3.  The  injury  occurs  under  such  conditions  as  prevail  when 
the  transpiration  of  the  apple  is  rapid  during  dry  warm  days,  and 
the  process  of  evaporation  is  suddenly  stopped  during  cool  nights. 
Under  such  conditions,   the  roots  in  the  warm  soil  continue  to 
force  water  into  the  cells  of  the  fruit  at  night.     Hence,  cells  near 
the  source  of  the  supply,  becoming  gorged  and  distended,  finally 
burst  and   die.      Adjacent  cells,   being  deprived   of  their   water 
supply  from  such  cells,  also  die. 

4.  The  brown  spots  result  from  a  death  of  cells  due  to  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  water  supply.     This  deficiency  in  a  wet  season 
results  for  the  reason  that  the  apple  grows  very  rapidly  and  the 
conductive  system  of  the  apple  is  not  able  to  supply  the  new 
growth ;  hence  the  water  is  deficient.     In  a  dry  season,  the  trans- 
piration (evaporation)  is  excessive  ,and,  as  the  soil  lacks  moisture, 
it  cannot  supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  water,  again  resulting  in 
a  deficiency. 


806  THE   FKUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  242. —  EUROPEAN  CANKER,  OFTEN  FOUND  IN  NEW  YORK 
STATE.    NOTE  CALLUS  RIDGES 


SOME  OF  Oru   MOST  COMMON  APPLE  DISEASES          867 

Little  is  being  done  by  pathologists  or  growers  in  this  state 
toward  the  control  of  the  disease.  In  the  light  of  the  above 
theories,  all  of  which  agree  that  the  trouble  is  a  result  of  some 
Irregularity  in  the  water  supply,  it  appears  that  any  operations 
which  will  tend  to  make  uniform  the  water  relations  of  the  soil 
and  of  the  plant  will  aid  in  reducing  the  disease.  Some  points 
worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  are  soil  drainage,  proper  tillage, 
and  cover  cropping  at  the  proper  season.  It  is  also  advised  that 
pruning  and  thinning  be  not  overdone.  Wherever  the  trouble 
occurs  periodically  in  storage,  it  is  recommended  that  the  store- 
room be  not  too  dry  and  that  the  temperature  be  kept  at  about 
30  to  32  degrees  Fahrenheit, 

EUROPEAN  APPLE-TREE  CANKER 

This  canker  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Nectria  galligena.  In  the 
younger  stages  it  is  not  easily  recognized  as  distinct  from  any  other 
canker.  As  new  callus  is  developed  around  the  margin  of  the 
wound,  it  is  attacked  and  killed  by  the  fungus;  the  latter  spreads 
for  a  short  distance,  where  another  layer  of  new  growth,  or  callus, 
is  formed.  This  process  is  repeated  until  a  series  of  ridges  or 
rolls  of  callus  may  be  developed,  giving  the  appearance  so  charac- 
teristic of  this  disease  in  its  later  stages.  The  trouble  seems  to 
be  on  the  increase  in  New  York.  For  its  control  it  seems  reason- 
able to  conclude  that  the  measures  advised  in  the  case  of  the  New 
York  apple  tree  canker  are  applicable.  (See  Black  Eot.  Leaf 
Spot,  and  Canker  of  Apple,  page  861.) 

ILLINOIS   BLISTER   CANKER 

This  disease  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Nummularia  discreta. 
The  blister  canker  is  chiefly  a  disease  of  apple  orchards  of  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  neighboring  states,  although  it  is  now  present 
in  this  state.  It  is  usually  found  on  the  larger  limbs  and  the 
trunks,  affecting  the  bark  and  wood.  The  diseased  bark  is  at  first 
brown  and  slightly  sunken,  showing  healthy  bits  of  tissues  scat- 
tered within  the  generally  diseased  area.  In  a  later  stage  the  bark 
becomes  much  roughened  and  blackened,  and  falls  off  in  irregular 
patches,  exposing  the  wood.  On  the  dead  areas,  or  even  on  the 
bark  before  it  falls  away,  the  fruiting  parts  of  the  fungus  are  devel- 
oped. These  bodies  are  relatively  large  and  black,  and  therefore 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  243.— ILLINOIS  APPLE-TBSE  CANKER.    XOTE  DISC-SHAPED  FRUITING  BODIES  OF   FUNGI 

IN  DEAD  BARK 


SOME  OF  Oi'R   MOST  CO.M.MO.N   AJTIJ-;    DISKASKS 


861) 


stand  out  prominently,  giving  a  blistered  appearance  to  the  canker, 
whence  the  name.     A  satisfactory  control  method  is  unknown. 


SOOTY    BLOTCH 


This  disease,  which  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Lejttofli  //riiuii 
is  so  named  because  of  the  appearance  of  the  spots  on  the  fruit. 
The  blotches  are  rather  irregular  in  outline,  sooty  in  aspect,  and 


r^^^BBte  <J^^^    • 


f 

m 


I 


FIG.  244. —  SOOTY    BLOTCH 

superficial  in  nature.  The  blotched  appearance  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  fungus,  the  vegetative  parts  of  which  grow  on  the 
surface  of  the  skin  of  the  apple.  These  vegetative  parts  are  com- 
posed of  a  network  of  radiating  olive-brown  threads.  Apparently 
no  spores  are  produced  to  be  scattered  throughout  the  summer  as, 
for  example,  in  the  case  of  the  apple  scab  fungus. 

Another  form  of  the  trouble  is  found  in  what  is  known  as  "  fly 


870 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


speck/'  the  name  describing  the  disease.  These  troubles  are  more 
common  in  wet  seasons,  and  during  the  season  just  past  the  sooty 
blotch  has  been  very  prevalent  in  Xew  York  State.  The  fruit  is 
not  destroyed  nor  rotted  in  any  way,  although  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  presence  of  the  fungus  on  the  surface  mars  the  appear- 


.FiG.  245. —  FLYSPECK  TYPE  OF  .SOOTY  BLOTCH 

ance  of  the  fruit  and  so  depreciates  its  value.  It  should  be  con- 
trolled to  a  large  degree  by  the  later  scab  spraying  described 
above  for  wet  seasons. 

FIRE    BLIGHT 

This  is  a  bacterial  disease  caused  by  Bacillus  amylovorus.  See 
article  by  M.  F.  Barrus  on  Pear  Diseases,  Part  II  of  this  bulletin. 
The  fact  as  to  cause  and  control  therein  set  forth  apply  equally 
to  this  disease  as  it  manifests  itself  on  the  apple,  especially  on 
young  trees. 


DWARF  APPLES 
U.   P.  HEDRICK 

Horticulturist,  Ne\v  York  Agriculture   Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Especial  interest  in  dwarf  apples  at  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  began  in  1901,  when  the  State  Fruit  Growers' 
Association,  The  Eastern  New  York  Horticultural  Society,  and 
the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society  appointed  com- 
mittees to  confer  with  the  authorities  at  the  Station  for  the  pur- 
pose of  locating  experimental  orchards  of  dwarf  apples.  At  that 
time  the  country  was  in  one  of  the  periodic  revivals  of  interest 
in  dwarf  fruits  that  have  several  times  held  sway  in  eastern 
America.  But  there  was  a  well-defined  motive  behind  the  move- 
ment that  led  the  horticultural  societies  of  New  York  and  this 
Station  to  cooperate  in  the  planting  of  dwarf  apples. 

San  Jose  scale  had  come  in  the  state  and  was  rapidly  spread- 
ing. It  was  thought  that  the  scale  could  best  be  controlled  by 
fumigating  the  trees  under  tents.  Since  it  was  certain  that  dwarf 
trees  could  be  easily  fumigated,  fruit  growers  asked  for  an  ex- 
periment in  order  to  determine  whether  dwarf  apples  could  be 
grown  profitably  in  commercial  orchards.  Had  ifTiot  been  for 
this  apprehension  of  grievous  disaster  from  San  Jose  scale,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  fruit  growers  would  have  called  for  the  in- 
vestigation, or  whether  the  Station  would  have  voluntarily  under- 
taken it. 

DWARF  TREES 

Dwarf  trees  are  plants  that  by  various  means  are  made  to  grow 
smaller  than  normal  specimens  of  the  same  species  or  variety ;  for 
example,  by  growing  on  stocks  that  dwarf  the  top,  by  restricting 
the  root  run,  and  by  pruning  to  check  or  suppress  the  top.  Horti- 
culturally  speaking,  dwarf  trees  are  those  grown  on  dwarfing 
stocks.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  remarked  that  tree-like  forms 
usually  succeed  very  well  on  bushes  or  smaller  growing  plants  of 
the  same  species,  or  often  of  closely  related  species.  The  cases 
are  few,  however,  where  varieties  or  species  of  small  stature  can 
be  profitably  grafted  on  plants  of  larger  size.  Unforunately, 
there  are  no  known  relationships  of  plants  that  serve  as  accurate 

guides  in  the  matter  of  grafting. 

[871] 


872       THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  STATE  OF  XEW  YORK 

STANDARD    STOCKS 

What  we  in  America  call  standard  stocks  are  seedlings  of  the 
common  apple,  Pyrus  mains.  There  is  a  mistaken  notion  that 
these  stocks  come  from  seeds  of  Pyrus  baccata,  or  hybrids  of  it, 
which  constitute  onr  crab  apples.  It  is  doubtful  whether  true 
crab  seeds  are  often,  if  ever,  planted  for  standard  stocks.  Until 
recent  years,  all,  or  nearly  all,  standard  stocks  for  this  country 
were  imported  from  France  and  Belgium  under  the  name  "  French 
Crab,'7  with  the  implication,  too  often  given  credence  by  nursery- 
men, that  they  were  seedlings  of  true  crabs. 

There  are  at  least  two  kinds  of  standard  stocks:  those  grown 
from  seeds  of  wild  apples  and  seedlings  of  cultivated  varieties. 
Were  choice  possible,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  on  the  part  of 
fruit  growers  to  take  seedlings  from  wild  trees.  It  is  difficult, 
however,  to  obtain  seeds  from  wild  trees,  and  most  of  the  apple 
stocks  now  used  by  nurserymen  come  from  seeds  taken  from  cider 
mills.  Since  all  cultivated  varieties  of  apples  may  go  to  the  cider 
mill,  the  resulting  seedlings  cannot  fail  to  be  variable,  giving 
good,  bad,  and  indifferent  stocks. 

DWARFING   STOCKS 

Apples  are  dwarfed  by  grafting  or  budding  them  on  small- 
growing  forms  of  the  cultivated  species  of  this  fruit.  What  are 
these  species  ?  Scarcely  any  two  botanists  who  have  studied  the 
apple  agree.  Accepting  the  best  authority,  we  must  look  on 
dwarfing  stocks  as  diminutive  forms  of  the  species  from  which 
come  most  of  our  cultivated  apples. 

Watching  seedling  apples,  one  finds  that  the  variation  in  the 
size  of  the  plants  coming  from  miscellaneous  seeds  is  considerable. 
Unquestionably  careful  selection  of  the  most  dwarfed  forms  of 
seedling  trees  would  give  us  dwarfing  stocks  similar  to  those  now 
in  common  use.  Unquestionably,  too,  the  dwarf  or  unproductive 
or  scraggly-growing  trees  of  this  or  that  variety  to  be  found  in 
many  orchards  owe  these  qualities  to  the  stock  and  not  to  the  scion. 
There  are,  possibly,  a  score  of  named  seedling  stocks,  but  of  these 
we  are  concerned  in  this  experiment  with  but  two,  French  Para- 
dise and  Doucin. 


1) \YAUK   APPLES 


873 


. 


874  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

French  Paradise 

This  is  probably  the  most  dwarfed  of  the  several  stocks  and 
has  the  reputation,  ungrafted,  of  being  the  most  precocious  in 
bearing  as  it  is  also  in  season  of  blooming  and  fruiting.  Grown 
to  maturity,  this  apple  is  described  as  being  dwarf,  compact  in 
habit,  productive  and  as  bearing  very  good,  early  autumn,  dessert 
apples,  golden-yellow  in  color  with  a  reddish*blush,  and  of  a  brisk, 
agreeable,  acid  flavor.  Independent  of  its  value  as  a  dwarfing 
stock  it  is  said  to  be  a  useful  orchard  or  garden  plant.  The 
derivation  of  the  name  is  obvious,  the  forbidden  fruit  of  which 
Adam  and  Eve  ate. 

Doucin 

The  Doucin  is  a  French  stock,  which  roots  and  grows  more  freely 
than  does  the  French  Paradise,  the  root  system  differing  greatly 
in  having  more  woody  roots  that  strike  downward  to  a  greater 
depth.  When  permitted  to  bear  fruit,  the  apples  of  Doucin  are 
a  greenish  yellow  with  a  decided  blush  and  are  sweet,  the  flavor 
giving  the  name  from  the  French  "  douceur  "  —  sweetness. 

Propagation  of  Dwarfing  Stocks 

Some  of  the  dwarfing  stocks  sucker  so  freely  that  the  readiest 
means  of  propagation  is  to  detach  the  sucker  and  use  it  as  a  stock. 
Other  dwarfing  stocks  are  propagated  from  root  cuttings.  But 
unquestionably  the  chief  method  of  propagation  is  by  mound- 
layering.  Well-established  plants  are  made  to  stool  by  cutting 
them  off  a  few  inches  from  the  ground.  When  these  stools  have 
made  sufficient  growth,  usually  in  the  summer  of  the  second 
season,  their  bases  are  buried  in  a  mound,  and  by  fall  a  rooted 
plant  will  have  formed.  These,  if  sufficiently  vigorous,  may  be 
grafted  the  following  winter  or  budded  the  next  summer.  The 
small  stocks  in  a  stool  are  grown  in  the  nursery  row  for  an  addi- 
tional year. 

DISCUSSION   OF  EXPERIMENTS 

Three  sites  were  chosen  for  experiments :  one  at  Kinderhook, 
Columbia  County,  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  on  the  farm  of  Edward 
van  Alstyne;  another  at  Fayettville.  Onondaga  County,  on  the 
farm  of  F.  E.  Dawley ;  and  the  third  at  Carlton,  Orleans  County, 


DWAIJF  APPLES 


875 


PLATE  247. —  TKEE  ON  DOUCIN  STOCK  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  PKUNING 


876  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW   YORK  STATE 

on  the  farm  of  Albert  Wood  and  son.  The  distribution  of 
orchards  in  eastern,  central,  and  western  New  York  gives  rather 
distinct  climatic  and  soil  conditions  for  the  three  orchards. 

Plan   of  the   Tests 

Briefly  stated,  the  general  plan  of  the  three  experiments  was 
to  grow  a  permanent  orchard  of  standard  trees  with  fillers  of 
varieties  on  Doucin  stock,  and  between  these  fillers  on  Paradise 
stock.  The  distance  between  the  trees  in  the  Wood  orchard  is 
fifteen  feet;  in  the  other  two,  twelve  feet. 

The  van  Alstyne  orchard  was  planted  in  the  autumn  of  1904 
with  306  trees  on  the  three  stocks  as  follows :  standard  trees,  27 ; 
on  Doucin  stock,  153  trees;  on  Paradise,  126.  These  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  following  varieties :  Baldwin,  Boiken,  Hol- 
land Pippin,  Hubbardston,  Jonathan,  Lady,  Mclntosh,  R.  I. 
Greening,  Rome,  Sutton,  Wealthy,  and  Wagener. 

The  Dawley  orchard  was  planted  in  1904  with  512  trees,  the 
number  on  each  stock  being:  standard,  42;  Doucin,  161;  Para- 
dise, 309.  The  following  are  the  varieties :  Alexander,  Baldwin, 
Boiken,  Esopus,  Gravenstein,  Green  Sweet,  Grimes,  Hnbbardston, 
Jacob  Sweet,  Jonathan,  Longfield,  Mclntosh,  Monmouth,  North- 
ern Spy,  Pumpkin  Sweet,  R.  I.  Greening,  Rome,  Sutton,  Wago- 
ner, Wealthy,  Wolf  River,  Y^ellow  Transparent. 

In  the  Wood  orchard  there  were  originally  375  trees  set  in  the 
autumn  of  1903:  45  on  standard,  110  on  Doucin,  and  220  on 
Paradise  stocks,  distributed  among  the  varieties  Alexander,  Bald- 
win, Ben  Davis,  Boiken,  Gravenstein,  Holland  Winter,  Jonathan, 
Lady,  Mclntosh,  Monmouth,  R.  I.  Greening,  Rome,  Sutton, 
Bismarck,  Twenty  Ounce,  and  Wealthy. 

Care  of  the  Orchards 

The  three  orchards  received  the  care  commonly  given  commer- 
cial orchards  in  New  York  except  in  particulars  to  be  mentioned. 

Scion  Roots  and  Suckers.  Beginning  with  the  first  year  it  was 
found  necessary  to  go  over  the  orchards  each  spring  and  cut  such 
roots  as  had  sprung  from  the  scion  and  such  suckers  as  had  come 
from  the  stocks.  This  was  no  small  task,  the  first  operation  re- 
quiring that  more  or  less  earth  be  removed  and  replaced,  although 


SOME  OF  On:  AIo^T  Co. MM  ox  APPLE  DISEASES         877 


FIG.  248. —  DEFECTS  OF  TREES  ox  DOUCIN 
STOCK;  UPPER,  PROTUBERANCE  ABOVE 
UNION;  LOWER,  SUCKERING  HABIT 


878  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

it  may  be  said  that  the  trees  should  not  have  been  set  so  deep  as 
to  make  this  necessary.  Shallow  planting  was  tried  in  the  Dawley 
and  van  Alstyne  orchards  but  with  disastrous  results  to  the 
surface-rooting  Doucin  and  Paradise  trees,  many  of  which  were 
blown  over  with  even  moderate  winds  while  others  suffered  from 
sun,  plow,  and  cultivation.  It  was  found  necessary  to  hill  up  these 
shallow-rooted  trees  by  plowing  toward  the  rows. 

Pruning.  The  winter  pruning  of  the  trees,  although  more 
difficult  than  in  training  standard  trees,  gave  comparatively  little 
trouble.  It  consisted  of  cutting  out  crossed  branches,  surplus 
branches,  and  such  few,  of  course,  as  were  injured  or  diseased. 
It  was  necessary  to  head  back  the  wood  on  the  Paradise  and 
Doucin  trees  more  severely,  depending  on  the  variety,  than  that 
on  the  standards,  but  otherwise  the  pruning  was  much  the  same 
on  all. 

For  the  first  two  seasons  but  little  summer  pruning  was  at- 
tempted, the  trees  being  small  and  none  too  vigorous.  Then  began 
a  series  of  experiments,  no  one  of  which  proved  satisfactory. 

Measuring  the  Results 

In  the  light  of  ten  seasons'  work  with  drawf  apples,  suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  training  of  the  plants  is  the  most  difficult  and  the 
least  satisfactory  operation  in  growing  these  trees.  Indeed,  it  is 
hardly  too  much  to  assert  that  if  dwarf  apples  must  be  headed 
back  or  pinched  in  during  the  growing  season,  it  is  impossible  to 
grow  them  in  the  trying  climate  of  Xew  York.  In  no  one  of  the 
attempts  at  summer  pruning  have  we  been  able  wholly  to  avoid 
weak,  spindling  second  growths  which  would  not  mature  and 
succumbed  to  the  cold  of  the  next  winter. 

The  Union  of  Stocks  and  Scions.  The  value  of  a  stock  is  greatly 
reduced  if  the  union  between  the  consorting  parts  of  the  tree  i ; 
poor.  There  is  no  question  but  that  varieties  unit©  unequally 
well  with  different  stocks.  The  following  figures  show  with  which 
stock  apples  irrespective  of  variety  unite  best :  31  trees  on  Para- 
dise are  reported  to  have  broken  off  at  the  union  during  the  ten 
years'  test ;  four  on  Doucin ;  none  on  French  Crab.  There  were, 
too,  a  considerable  number  of  trees  in  which  there  were  enlarge- 
ments above  the  union  as  shown  in  the  upper  half  of  Fig.  i 


SOME  <>F  Orrc  MOST  (IOMM<>\   APPLE  DISEASES 


sro 


FIG.  24J). —  ROOT    SYSTKMS    OF    APPLE    TREES:   LEFT,    BUDDKD    .STANDARD: 
SECOND,  GRAFTED  STANDARD;  THIRD,  PARADISE;  RIGHT,  DOUCIN 


880  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  iisr  XEW  YORK  STATE 

These,  however,  seem  to  affect  the  vigor  of  the  tree  little  or  not 
at  all.  In  this  test  there  were  no  enlargements  on  standard  trees 
although  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  in  orchards  of  standards. 
The  number  of  these  deformities  on  the  two  dwarfing  stocks  seems 
to  be  about  the  same,  although  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  exact 
number  since  one  can  hardly  say  when,  an  enlargement  at  the 
union  becomes  abnormal.  These  figures  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
union  between  stock  and  scion  is  poorest  on  the  Paradise,  next  so 
on  Doiicin,  and  best  on  the  standard. 

Winter  Injury.  The  following  figures,  grouped  for  the  thr( 
orchards  and  roughly  given,  indicate  the  relative  hardiness  of  th( 
three  stocks:  Of  the  600  trees  on  French  Paradise,  57,  or  9.5 
per  cent,  are  marked  as  having  died  of  winter  injury ;  of  the  404 
Doucins,  18,  or  4.45  per  cent,  were  winterkilled;  on  the  French 
Crab  only  three,  or  2.75  per  cent,  succumbed  to  cold. 

That  the  dwarfing  stocks  are  less  hardy  than  the  French  Crab 
occasions  little  surprise  when  one  remembers  that  their  roots  are 
much  nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  French  Paradise  is 
reported  everywhere  in  Europe  to  be  tender  to  cold,  and  it  is  to 
be  expected  that  it  would  be  less  hardy  in  the  trying  climate  of 
New  York  than  either  of  the  other  two  stocks.  Undoubtedly  the 
injury  from  winterkilling  was  more  severe  during  the  first  and 
second  seasons  because  the  trees  had  been  planted  in  the  autumn. 
From  the  experience  with  fall  planting  in  these  three  orchards,  it 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  dwarf  trees  should  not  be  planted 
in  the  autumn  in  a  climate  as  cold  as  that  of  New  York. 

Surface  Rooting.  The  greatest  weakness  of  dwarfing  stocks 
for  New  York  orchard  conditions  is  the  surface-rooting  habit  of 
both  Doucin  and  Paradise.  In  this  respect  the  two  stocks  cannot 
be  distinguished  —  the  roots  of  one  being  as  near  the  surface  as 
those  of  the  other.  In  Fig  249  is  shown  the  rooting  habit  of  the 
three  stocks.  Several  evils  follow  surface  rooting.  The  dwarf 
trees  suffered  most  from  winter  injury  —  no  doubt  in  part  be- 
cause of  the  nearness  of  the  roots  to  the  surface.  About  ten  per 
cent  of  the  dwarf  trees  in  the  three  orchards  sooner  or  later 
either  blew  over  or  their  roots  were  so  exposed  that  the  trees  had 
to  be  reset  or  replaced.  In  Fig.  250  is  shown  a  tree  on  Paradise 
blown  over  the  last  year  of  the  experiment.  Undoubtedly,  too, 


DWARF  APPLES 


881 


THE  FKFIT  TXDUSTKY  IN  XKW  YORK   STATE 

some  of  the  trees  that  refused  to  thrive  did  so  because  of  the  ex- 
posed condition  of  their  roots,  while  in  a  damper  climate,  in  sod, 
or  under  a  mulch  system,  surface  rooting  might  not  prove  so^ 
disastrous. 

This  experiment  all  but  demonstrates  that  dwarf  apples  can 
not  be  successfully  grown  under  the  high  cultivation  methods  of 
Xew  York.  It  may  be  asked  why  the  trees  were  not  set  deeper. 
The  answer  is  that  if  the  trees  be  set  sufficienty  deep  so  that  the 
scion  touches  the  ground,  it  strikes  and  the  tree  ceases  to  be  a 
true  dwarf.  Many  trees  that  pass  for  dwarfs  are  not  dwarfs  at  all. 
They  were  set  on  dwarf  stocks,  but  the  scion  has  taken  root  and 
the  tree  has  become  a  standard,  or,  more  correctly,  half  standard 
and  half  dwarf. 

Suckering.  Suckers  from  both  of  the  dwarfing  stocks  proved 
more  or  less  troublesome.  It  would  be  difficult  to  say  whether 
Doucin  or  Paradise  suckered  most,  but  the  weight  of  evidence 
seems  to  be  against  the  Doucin.  Both  stocks  are  readily  pro- 
pagated from  layers  and  stolons,  either  roots  or  stems  striking 
root  freely.  It  would,  then,  be  expected  that  suckers  would  ap- 
pear more  freely  than  on  standard  stocks  which  come  from  seed 
and  can  be  grown  vegetatively  only  with  difficulty.  Presumably, 
however,  there  would  have  been  far  fewer  suckers  to  contend  with 
in  these  orchards  under  a  sod  or  a  mulch  system  of  cultivation, 
for  certainly  the  unavoidable  injury  to  the  shallow  roots  of  the 
dwarf  trees  by  plow  and  cultivator  would  stimulate  the  formation 
of  suckers.  The  lower  half  of  Fig.  248  shows  the  suckering  habit 
of  the  Doucin  stock. 

The  Size  of  the  Trees.    What  is  the  comparative  size  of  varieties 
on  the  three  stocks  ?     Could  the  reader  see  the  trees,   eyesight 
would  be  much  better  than  figures  to  show  their   size.      Thus, 
the  Paradise  trees  are  dwarf  because  of  a  very  short  trunk,  th< 
diameter  of  which  is  often  nearly  that  of  a  Doucin  or  standard 
the  shoots  of  Paradise  spring  up  to  an  amazing  height  from 
dwarf  framework  so  that  figures  make  the  trees  seem  unduly  higl 
So,  too,  the  slendered  and  more  straggling  growth  of  the  Doucii 
trees  magnifies  the  height  and  spread  of  trees  on  this  stock 
figures  be  followed  closely.     The  photograph  reproduced  in  Fij 
251  gives  a  much  better  idea  of  the  size  and  habit  of  the  ti 
than  would  figures. 


DWARF 


884 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


A  glance  at  the  photograph  shows  that  both  Paradise  and  Doucin 
trees  must  have  far  more  room  as  the  trees  grow  in  Xew  York 
than  is  commonly  recommended  for  them  by  either  European  or 
American  writers.  The  distances  recommended  for  Paradise 
range  from  six  to  twelve  feet  and  from  eight  to  sixteen  feet  for 
Doucin.  From  experience  with  the  trees  in  these  experiments, 
however,  we  should  say  that  in  cultivated  orchards,  apples  on 
Paradise  should  be  planted  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  apart; 
on  Doucin,  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet,  depending  on  soil  and 
variety.  This  means  that  in  this  state  where  standards  are  set 
from  forty  to  fifty  feet  apart,  Paradise  should  be  set  one-third 
and  Doucin  one-half  as  far  as  standards.  On  poorer  soils,  in 
sod,  and  where  heavy  summer  pruning  can  be  practiced,  lesser 
distances  may  suffice. 

Yield  of  Fruit.  The  van  Alstyne  orchard  was  slow  in  coming 
in  bearing,  none  of  the  trees  yielding  fruit  until  1907,  the  third 
year  from  setting,  when  one  apple  was  borne  on  a  standard  tree, 
and  three  on  Doucin.  In  1908,  trees  on  all  three  stocks  bore, 
but  on  no  stock  was  there  an  average  of  an  apple  per  tree;  in 
1909,  27  French  Crab  trees  bore  28  apples;  135  Doucin,  246 
fruits;  and  100  trees  on  Paradise  bore  175  specimens.  In  1910, 
the  crop  was  a  failure  and  the  few  fruits  were  not  counted.  The 
first  yield  of  fruit  worth  taking  into  account,  then,  was  borne  in 
1911,  when  the  trees  were  nine  years  from  the  bud  and  seven  from 
setting.  The  yields  per  tree  for  1911  and  the  three  remaining 
years  of  the  test  are  shown  in  Table  1. 


TABLE  I 

YIELDS  IN  VAN  ALSTYNE 


APPLE  ORCHARD 


Number  of  trees 

Stock 

YIELD    PER   TREE 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

27.. 
135  
100  

Crab  
Doucin  
Paradise  

Pounds 
13 
10 

7 

Pounds 
18 

21* 

15 

Pounds 

m 

23 
14 

Pounds 
791 
79 
36 

DWARF  APPLES 


885 


The  Dawley  orchard  bore  its  first  fruit  in  1906  when  there  were 
83  apples  on  300  Paradise  trees,  23  on  157  Doucin  trees,  and 
none  on  the  37  standards.  In  1907,  the  Paradise  trees  bore  96 
apples,  the  Doucins  13,  and  standards  none.  In  1908,  there 
were  567  apples  011  Paradise,  221  on  the  Doucin,  and  seven  on 
the  standard  trees.  In  1909,  the  Paradise  trees  averaged  about 
two  apples  to  the  tree,  the  Doucin  four,  and  the  standards  less 
than  an  apple.  The  crop  of  1910  was  almost  a  total  failure,  and 
it  was  not  until  1.911  that  the  yield  could  be  taken  in  pounds,  the 
averages  per  tree  for  the  next  four  years  running  as  is  shown 
in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 
YIELDS  IN  DAWLEY  DWARF  APPLE  ORCHARD 


Qtnnlr 

YIELD    P 

BR   TREE 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

37.. 

Crab  

Pounds 
3 

Pounds 
3 

Pounds 
0 

Pounds 
81 

157  

Doucin  

5^ 

17| 

2 

51 

300  

Paradise  

5* 

16 

i 

70 

In  the  Wood  orchard,  one  apple  was  borne  on  a  Boiken  on 
Paradise  the  first  year  set.  The  second  year,  1906,  the  trees  on 
Paradise  bore  180  specimens  on  192  trees,  the  Doucin  nine  on 
100  trees,  while  none  of  the  42  trees  on  French  Crab  bore.  In 
1907,  the  Paradise  trees  produced  an  average  of  a  little  over 
four  apples  per  tree,  the  Doucin,  two  apples  per  tree,  while  the 
42  French  Crabs  bore  26  fruits.  In  1908,  the  yield  came  up  to 
14  apples  per  tree  on  Paradise,  four  apples  for  each  tree  on 
Doucin,  and,  all  told,  17  apples  on  Crab.  The  yield  in  1909,  on 
Paradise  was  30  apples  per  tree;  on  Doucin,  14  specimens;  on 
French  Crab  but  18  apples  for  the  42  trees.  As  in  the  other 
two  orchards  the  crop  of  1910  was  a  failure.  In  Table  III  are 
shown  the  yields  per  tree  for  three  remaining  years  of  the  test. 

As  the  figures  stand,  the  honors  for  productiveness  seem  to  lie 
reen  the  French  Crab  and  Doucin  trees.  If  we  calculate  the 


886  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

TABLE  III 
YIELDS  IN  WOOD  DWARF  APPLE  ORCHARD 


Number  of  trees 

Stock 

'  YIELD    PER   TREE 

1911 

1912 

191; 

42 

Crab  
Doucin  
Paradise  

Pounds 

^ 

27 

27 

Pounds 
13 
14J 
18* 

Pour 

100                                  

192                

number  of  trees  per  acre  for  the  different  stocks,  however,  all 
ing  the  smaller  distances  between  trees  for  the  dwarfs,  then 
Paradise,  per  acre  unit,  is  most  productive  for  this  first  ten  ye 
Doucin  next,  and  French  Crab  last.  So  many  exceptions  co 
rightly  be  made  to  such  a  calculation,  however,  that  it  is  not  wo 
making.  Those  who  have  had  to  do  with  the  experiment  h 
been  surprised  at  the  comparatively  small  yield  of  the  trees 
Paradise.  Few,  indeed,  are  the  Paradise  trees  that  have  b 
bent  to  the  ground  with  a  load  of  fruit  as  they  are  so  o: 
depicted. 

Time  of  Bearing.     In  considering  age  of  bearing,   it  is 
portant  to  keep  in  mind  the  age  of  the  plants.     Trees  were  bud 
for  these  experimental  orchards  in  the  summer  of  1902. 
Wood  orchard  was  set  in  the  autumn  of  1903  and  the  other 
orchards  a  year  later. 

In  all  three  of  the  orchards,  as  the  figures  given  show,  the  Pi 
dise  trees  came  into  bearing  soonest.  In  no  one  of  the  th 
orchards,  however,  was  there  what  could  be  called  a  commer 
crop  on  any  of  the  stocks  until  the  tenth  year  after  setting,  \vh 
if  we  take  an  average  of  the  three  orchards,  the  trees  on  Fre 
Crab  bore  66.5  pounds  each;  on  Doucin,  63.65  pounds;  and 
Paradise,  52  pounds.  The  figures  must  be  thus  roughly  combi 
or  else  given  in  detail  at  a  length  of  several  pages  of  tabular  mat 
the  showing  in  either  case  being  much  the  same;  namely,  that 
dwarfing  stocks  bring  apples  into  commercial  bearing  somew 
earlier  than  do  crabs. 


DWARF  APPLES  887 

Color,  and  Quality  of  Apples  on  the  Three  Stocks.  From 
commercial  standpoint,  and  this  is  a  test  of  commercial  plant- 
ii-s,  the  results  as  to  effects  of  the  three  stocks  on  size,  color, 
d  quality,  are,  in  a  word,  nil.  There  were,  it  is  true,  individual 
•os  on  Paradise  and  Doucin  that  bore  particularly  large  apples 
d  others  that  produced  a  handsomely  colored  crop,  but  when  the 
o<lurt  of  all  the  trees  of  a  variety  was  compared,  one  had  to 
•laro  that  the  fruit  on  one  stock  was  quite  as  large  and  attractive 
that  on  either  of  the  other  two.  Nor  was  there  any  difference 
die  flavor  of  the  apples  from  the  three  stocks. 
Varieties  That  Do  Best  on  the  Dwarfing  Stocks.  All  things 
isidorod,  possibly  Mclntosh,  Wealthy,  and  the  little  Lady  have 
on  most  satisfactory  on  dwarfs.  Jonathan,  Esopus,  Grimes, 
oxander,  Wagener,  Boiken,  and  Bismarck  have  been  very  satis- 
•tory.  Twenty  Ounce  has  been  the  most  unsatisfactory;  it 
iled  to  make  a  good  union  at  the  start,  and  even  the  trees  that 
ule  the  best  union  have  been  unhappy  on  either  of  the  dwarfing 
x-ks.  Baldwin,  R.  I.  Greening,  Rome,  Ben  Davis,  Northern 
»y,  Sutton,  the  best  known  of  the  remaining  27  sorts,  have  not 
«MI  especially  kindly  to  the  dwarfing  stocks. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  the  work  with 
•art'  apples  at  this  Station: 

1.  It  is  difficult,  but  not  impossible,  to  obtain  varieties  on  the 
art  ing  stock  one  may  choose  because  of  confusion  in  stocks. 

ie  cost  of  the  orchard  per  tree,  and  more  particularly  per  acre, 
high,  since  many  trees  are  required. 

2.  In  the  cold  climate  of  New  York  there  is  much  danger  of 
ntcr killing  or  winter  injury  to  the  tenderer  dwarf  trees.     The 
•ouch  Paradise  stock  is  particularly  tender  to  cold. 

•).  When  dwarfing  stocks  are  used  the  union  between  stock  and 
on  is  not  so  good  as  in  standard  trees.  Trees  on  French  Paradise 
ike  poorer  unions  than  do  those  on  Doucin  stocks. 
4.  Many  varieties  throw  out  roots  from  the  scion  if  the  union 
at  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  entails  annually 
3  task  of  removing  roots  springing  from  the  scion ;  otherwise  the 
/arf  trees  quickly  cease  to  be  dwarfs. 


888  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

5.  All  dwarfing  stocks  have  relatively  shallow  root  systems  that 
are  undesirable,  for  the  trees,  young  or  old,  loaded  or  unloaded, 
blow  over,  the  orchard  cannot  be  properly  cultivated,  the  shallow- 
rooted  dwarfs  suffer  more  from  drought  than  do  the  deep-rooted 
standards,  and  lastly,  root  injuries  from  plow  and  cultivator  are 
more  frequent  with  shallow-rooted  stocks. 

6.  The  suckering  habit  of  the  dwarf  stocks  is  a  vexatious  trouble 
with  which  growers  of  dwarf  trees  must  contend. 

7.  In  the  exceedingly  variable   climate  of  New  York,   it  is 
difficult  to  find  a  method  and  a  time  to  prune  that  are  satisfactory 
in  the  summer.     The  results  for  which  summer  pruning  is  done 
do  not  always  attend,  and  positive  harm  often  follows  because  of 
weak,  sickly,  second  growth,  which  so  often  is  an  after  effect  and 
which  nearly  always  succumbs  the  succeeding  winter. 

8.  The  data  secured  in  this  test  show  that  the  trees  on  dwarfing 
stocks  come  into  commercial  bearing  somewhat  earlier  than  do 
those  on  standard  stocks.     There  are  no  indications,  however,  that 
the  dwarfs  come  into  bearing  sufficiently  early  or  that  they  bear 
enough  fruit  to  make  them  profitable  as  compared  with  standards. 

9.  It  is  a  common  claim  that  dwarf  apple  trees  produce  larger, 
handsomer,  and  better-flavored  fruits  than  standard  trees.     There 
is  little  in  these  three  orchards  to  substantiate  these  claims.    There 
are  differences  between  trees  on  the  three  stocks,  but  they  are  as 
often  as  not  in  favor  of  standards  as  of  dwarfs. 

10.  The  chief  advantages  of  the  dwarf  trees  are  such  as  appeal 
to  the  amateur  rather  than  to   the  professional   apple   grower. 
Thus,  a  dwarf  tree  occupies  less  space  and  a  greater  variety  can 
therefore  be  grown  in  a  garden  or  orchard.     The  plants  are  also 
handsomer  as  ornamentals. 

NOTE. —  Send  to  State  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  for  Bulletin  406 
on  Dwarf   Orchards. 


THE  PROFITS  ON  A  BARREL  OF  APPLES* 

U.  P.  HEDRICK 
Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

This  paper  is  written  for  those  who  want  data  on  the  cost  of 
producing  a  barrel  of  apples,  on  the  yield  of  barrels  per  acre,  the 
selling  price,  and  the  profits.  It  is  not,  however,  a  full  considera- 
tion of  the  subject;  for  to  obtain  precise  information  as  to  what 
it  costs  to  grow,  a  barrel  of  apples,  and  from  that  to  figure  out 
the  profits  would  be  a  complicated  piece  of  business.  An  abso- 
lutely accurate  reckoning  for  one  year  would  not  be  difficult ;  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  takes  several  years  to  bring  an 
apple  orchard  into  bearing,  after  which  it  barely  maintains  itself 
for  a  decade  or  two.  In  apple  growing,  too,  rather  more  than  in 
any  other  industry,  the  lean  years  and  fat  years  are  accentuated. 
More  than  with  most  other  crops,  also,  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages change  from  year  to  year.  And,  lastly,  the  value  of  the 
investment  is  exceedingly  variable.  But,  notwithstanding  these 
difficulties,  the  present  paper  puts  into  the  possession  of  apple 
growers  figures  that,  rightly  used,  ought  to  be  helpful. 

THE  ORCHARD 

The  orchard  from  which  the  following  figures  were  obtained  is 
situated  a  few  miles  west  of  Rochester,  known  to  many  as  the 
Auchter  orchard,  in  which  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  carried 
on  a  test  of  sod  mulch  and  tillage  for  ten-  years.f  Added  value 
is  given  to  the  figures  to  be  presented  by  the  fact  that  the  orchard 
was  selected  for  experimental  work  because  it  was  as  typical  as 
could,  be  found,  in  the  great  apple  belt  of  western  New  York.  The 
trees  are  Baldwins,  and  were  twenty-seven  years  old  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment. 

AVERAGE   YIELD 

The  first  information  we  must  have  is  the  number  of  barrels 
of  apples  per  acre  per  year.  The  exact  number  for  the  cultivated 


*  See  State  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  376. 
f  See  article  by  W.  D.  Auchter,  page  803. 

[889] 


890 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


plat  in  this  ten-year  average  is  116.8  barrels.  Graded,  the  acre 
average  for  the  period  is  79.2  of  barreled  stock  and  37.6  barrels 
of  evaporator  and  cider  stock.  The  proportion  of  evaporator  and 
cider  stock  is  seemingly  high  —  made  so  by  two  autumn  gales  in 
different  seasons,  which  gave  many  windfalls.  Yields  per  acre 
vary  greatly  with  the  same  variety  in  different  orchards,  even  in 
the  same  section,  but  there  is  little  reason  to  think  that  the  ten- 
year  acre  average  just  given  is  much  above  the  mark  for  orchards 
that  are  well  tilled,  sprayed,  and  pruned.  The  annual  yields  are 
shown  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I. 
ANNUAL  YIELD  OF  FRUIT  IN  AUCHTER  ORCHARD  FOR  TEN  YEARS 


PER  TREE 

PER   ACRE 

Barreled 

Culls  and 

Total 

Barreled 

Culls  and 

Total 

apples 

drops 

yield 

apples 

drops 

yield 

1904 

Bbls. 
2  45 

Bbls. 
2  13 

Bbls. 
4  58 

Bbls. 
66  53 

Bbls. 
58  08 

Bbls. 
124  61 

1905. 

1  42 

.74 

2  16 

38  59 

20  12 

58  71 

1903  .  .  . 

2  67 

1.44 

4  11 

72  69 

39  12 

111  81 

1907  .  .  . 

2  41 

.88 

3  29 

65  53 

23  79 

89  32 

1908  .  .  . 

4  18 

1.41 

5  59 

113  85 

38  25 

152  10 

1909 

2  37 

1.64 

4  01 

64  63 

44  57 

109  20 

1910 

1  92 

.69 

2  61 

52  21 

18.80 

71  01 

1911  

3.41 

2.19 

5.60 

92.84 

59.60 

152.44 

1912  

3.86 

1.70 

5.56 

105.05 

46.17 

151.22 

1913  

4.41 

1.02 

5.43 

120.00 

27.62 

147.62 

Totals  

29.10 

13.84 

42.94 

791.92 

376.12 

1,168.04 

10-year  average  

2.91 

1.38 

4.29 

79.19 

37.61 

116.80 

INTEREST  ON  INVESTMENT 

The  first  item  in  cost  of  production  to  be  considered  is  interest 
on  investment.  What  is  a  Baldwin  orchard,  in  full  bearing  in 
the  prime  of  life,  worth  ?  Sales  are  too  few,  and  most  of  those  that 
take  place  are  made  under  conditions  too  abnormal  to  make  selling 
price  a  safe  gauge  of  value.  We  will  suppose  the  value  to  be  $500 
per  acre  and  the  interest  5  per  cent.  This  valuation  includes 
not  only  cost  of  land,  trees,  and  labor,  but  the  deferred  dividends 
of  the  first  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  It  covers  the  overhead  expense 
of  houses  and  barns  —  or  at  least  the  share  of  these  charges  that 
would  fall  to  a  ten-acre  orchard  in  New  York.  The  first  expense 


THE  PROFITS  ON  A  BARREL  OF  APPLES  891 

item,  then,  is  $25  per  acre  on  investment,  a  sum  which,  divided 
by  116.8  —  the  number  of  barrels  per  acre  —  gives  a  charge  per 
barrel  of  $.21  as  interest  on  investment. 

TAXES 

Taxes  vary  greatly  in  different  counties  as  they  do  somewhat 
in  different  years  in  the  same  county.  Since  this  orchard  is  but  a 
part  of  a  general  farm,  only  an  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  cost 
of  taxes.  There  are  few  regions  or  years  in  New  York  in  which 
taxes  for  such  an  orchard  would  be  over  $1.50  per  acre,  making  the 
tax  on  each  barrel  of  apples  $.012  cents. 

DEPRECIATION  OF    OUTFIT 

The  next  account  to  be  charged  to  cost  of  production  is  depreci- 
ation in  teams  and  tools,  and  interest  on  the  money  invested  in 
them.  First-class  machinery  for  running  the  average  orchard  will 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $1,000,  the  items  being  as  follows: 
Team  $400,  spraying  outfit  $250,  harness  $50,  wagon  $75,  plow, 
harrows,  ladders,  crates,  pruning  tools,  etc.,  $115.  The  figures 
named  are  below  rather  than  above  average  prices,  but  there  are 
few  instances,  indeed,  in  which  the  tools-and  teams  named  would 
be  used  exclusively  for  a  ten-acre  orchard.  If  we  set  the  deprecia- 
tion and  interest  on  money  at  20  per  cent  for  the  above  equip- 
ment, we  must  add  $.17  per  barrel  of  apples  to  the  depreciation 
account.  In  obtaining  the  cost  of  production  in  the  Auchter 
orchard,  the  depreciation  account  is  thrown  out,  for  the  Station 
hired  all  work  done,  the  workmen  furnishing  their  own  teams  and 
tools.  This  item  is  put  in,  then,  only  as  an  approximation  of  what 
men  who  are  doing  their  own  work  must  charge  for  depreciation. 

COST  OF  TILLAGE 

Passing  now  to  orchard  operations,  the  annual  cost  of  tillage  per 
acre  for  the  decade  was  $7.39,  making  the  amount  to  be  charged 
against  each  barrel  of  fruit  $.063.  In  this  orchard,  tillage  con- 
sisted of  plowing  the  ground  in  the  spring,  after  which  it  was 
harrowed  and  rolled,  and  then  cultivated  by  harrowing  an  average 
of  seven  times  per  season.  The  price  paid  for  team  work  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period  was  $4  per  day  of  ten  hours ;  but  the  price 
advanced  to  $5,  a  fair  average  being  $4.50.  Tillage  includes 


892  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

the  labor,  or  putting  in  the  cover  crop,  but  not  the  cost  of  the  seed. 
For  the  cover  crop  seed  —  usually  red  clover  in  this  orchard  - 
there  must  be  added  $2.74  per  acre  for  seed,  or  $.023  per  barrel  of 
apples. 

COST  OF  PRUNING 

The  expense  of  pruning  per  year  per  acre  was  $3.56,  and, 
since  there  are  twenty-seven  trees  to  the  acre  in  this  orchard,  the 
cost  per  tree  was  $.131.  The  cost  per  barrel  of  apples  was  $.03. 
The  average  price  paid  for  the  work  was  $2.00  per  day  of  ten 
hours. 

COST    OF    SPRAYING 

The  average  cost  per  acre  for  spraying  was  $11.28 ;  per  tree 
$.418;  per  barrel  of  apples  $.096.  The  spraying  was  done  the 
first  few  years  with  a  hand  sprayer,  then  for  several  yearc  with  a 
Niagara  gas  sprayer,  and  the  last  three  with  a  gasoline  power 
outfit  having  two  runs  of  hose.  The  first  five  years  bordeaux 
mixture  and  arsenite  of  lime  were  used ;  the  last  five,  lime-sulphur 
and  arsenate  of  lead.  The  orchard  was  sprayed  three  times  per 
season  during  the  first  five  of  the  ten  seasons.  The  second  five 
years  it  was  sprayed  but  twice  per  season,  the  first  application 
being  the  dormant  spray  made  just  before  the  buds  began  to  swell, 
and  the  second  just  as  the  blossoms  dropped.  This  treatment 
has  given  an  almost  perfect  crop,  wormy  and  scabby  apples  being 
rarities  scarcely  to  be  found  in  the  orchard. 

EXPENSE    OF    SUPERINTENDENCE 

The  last  of  the  cost  of  production  charges  is  that  of  superintend- 
ing the  work.  The  services  of  the  average  fruit  grower  are  worth 
more  than  the  $2  per  day  allowed  for  actual  work,  and  this  defici- 
ency should  be  made  up  by  a  charge  for  superintending  the  work. 
The  Station  paid  for  this  service  $300  per  year.  This  is  a  fair 
price,  since  there  are  few  competent  orchardists  who  could  not 
superintend  a  farm  enterprise  of  several  times  the  magnitude  of 
a  ten-acre  orchard.  The  charge  to  be  entered  against  a  barrel  of 
apples  for  superintending,  then,  is  $.25. 

HARVEST    EXPENSES 

Picking,  packing,  sorting,  and  hauling  have  been  done  in  diverse 
ways  during  the  ten  years,  and  the  items  cannot  be  segregated; 


THE  PROFITS  ON  A  BARREL  OF  APPLES 


893 


but  the  total  cost  of  these  operations  has  been  $.244  per 
barrel.  The  apples,  it  should  be  said,  were  sorted  and  packed  in 
the  field.  The  crop  was  hauled  to  a  station  one  and  a  half  miles 
away,  over  a  country  road  no  better  than  the  average. 


SUMMARY 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  cost  sheet  for  a  barrel  of 
apples : 

Interest  on  investment 

Taxes     

Tilling    

Pruning     

Spraying     

Cover   crop    

Superintending   orchard    

Picking,  packing,  sorting  and  hauling 


$.21 
.012 
.063 
.03 
.096 
.023 
.25 
.244 


$0.93 


COST  OF  BARRELS 


All  of  the  first-  and  second-grade  apples  from  the  Auchter 
orchard  have  been  packed  in  barrels.  The  average  price  of  barrels 
for  ten  years  has  been  $.36  each;  the  price  fluctuated  from  $.30 
to  $.40.  The  culls  have  been  handled  in  crates,  and  a  charge  for 
packages  cannot  be  entered  against  them.  Adding  the  cost  of  the 
barrel  to  the  cost  of  production,  we  have  $1.29  as  the  total  cost  of 
a  barrel  of  apples  at  the  shipping  point. 

TABLE  II. 

ANNUAL  COST  OP  TILLAGE,  CDVER-CROP   SEED,  PRUNING,  SPRAYING, 
HARVESTING,  AND  PRICE  OF  BARRELS  IN  AUCHTER  ORCHARD  FOR  TEN  YEARS 


Cover 

Harvest- 

Price 

Year 

Tillage 

crop 

Pruning 

Spraying 

ing  (inc. 

of 

seed 

bbls.) 

barrels 

1904.. 

$21.25 

$12.50 

$14.62 

$58:22 

$210.90 

$0.375 

1905  

34  11 

14  60 

13.25 

44  27 

96  85 

30 

1906   

24.00 

6  30 

15.12 

46  51 

231  80 

32 

1907  

29.13 

17.50 

18.31 

73.84 

224.20 

.40 

1908  

28.87 

7.80 

22.11 

50.45 

338  59 

36 

1909 

52  91 

7  94 

16  69 

61  75 

229  91 

35 

1910 

39  70 

15  45 

13  62 

49  70 

183  89 

35 

1911 

44  00 

17  91 

14  25 

51  97 

373  20 

35 

1912 

35  00 

21  89 

19  50 

52  84 

415  51 

40 

1913  

42.25 

8.25 

21.87 

46.35 

415.24 

.40 

Total  

$351.22 

$130.14 

$169.34 

$535.90 

$2,720.09 

$3.605 

Average  per  barrel  . 

.063 

.023 

.03 

.096 

.604 

.36 

Average  per  tree  .  .  . 

.27 

.10 

.131 

.41 

2.10 

Average  per  acre.  .  . 

7.39 

2.74 

3.56 

11.28 

57  26 

894 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  i 


YORK  STATE 


PRICE  OF  APPLES 

We  have  received  an  average  of  $2.60  for  all  the  barreled  sto 
sold,  which  includes  firsts  and  seconds.  For  evaporator  and  cid 
stock  we  have  received  $.72  per  barrel  —  rather  above  the  averai 
possibly,  because  in  two  seasons  gales  of  wind,  as  has  been  sai 
gave  an  abnormally  large  quantity  of  very  good  windfalls.  T. 
yearly  prices  received  appear  in  Table  III. 

TABLE  III. 

PRICE  PER  BARREL  RECEIVED  FOR  APPLES  IN  THE  AUCHTER  ORCHARD 
FOR  TEN  YEARS 


Year 

Barreled 
apples 

Culls  and 
drops 

Year 

Barreled 
apples 

Culls  ai 
drops 

1904. 

$1  41 

$0.26 

1909.. 

$3.35 

SI 

1905  
1906  

2.80 
2.00 

.66 
.34 

1910  
1911  

3.35 
2.50 

1. 
1 

1907  

3.50 

.79 

1912  

2.00 

1908 

2  25 

37 

1913 

3  00 

Average 

$2.61 

BALANCE  SHEET 

We  are  now  ready  to  calculate  profits  and  declare  dividend 
Substracting  $1.29,  the  cost  of  a  barrel  of  apples,  from  $2.6 
the  amount  received,  a  net  profit  of  $1.31  per  barrel  remai 
for  firsts  and  seconds.  Multiplying  by  79,  the  number  of  barre 
per  acre,  gives  $103.49  as  the  profit  per  acre  for  firsts  and  second 
Subtracting  $.72  from  $.93  gives  $.21  as  the  difference  betweq 
average  cost  of  production  and  average  selling  price  of  cul 
Multiplying  37.6,  the  number  of  barrels  of  culls  per  acre,  by  2 
gives  a  loss  of  $7.89  per  acre  on  the  culls,  leaving  the  average  n 
profit  per  acre  in  this  orchard  for  the  past  ten  years  $95.60;  ac 
to  this  the  $25  interest  on  the  investment  and  we  have  $120.< 
net,  or  24.12  per  cent  on  $500,  as  the  annual  ten-year  divider 
from  this  orchard. 


CNTRAL  PACKING  HOUSES  FOR  NEW  YORK  FRUIT 

F.  S.  WELSH 
Agriculturist,  New  York  Central  Railroad,  New  York  City 

l'he  enactment  of  the  New  York  Apple  Grading  Law  has  raised 
i  i  notion  in  the  minds  of  many  growers  as  to  whether  it  might 
l|  be  desirable  to  use  Central  Packing  Houses  in  packing  fruit 
,i  i.nler  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  law.  With  a 
i|-w  to  obtaining  information  that  might  bear  011  this  question, 
1  •  writer  has  collected  data  as  to  methods  of  operation  of  Central 

eking  Houses  as  they  exist  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
:  ties  and  especially  in  Canada,  where  apples  are  packed  in 
l-rels  under  a  compulsory  apple  packing  law  similar  in  many 
i  [xrts  to  the  New  York  law. 

lit  was  not  thought  that  all  of  the  methods  employed  would 
l)ve  practicable  under  New  York  conditions,  but  it  seemed  that 
I  ere  there  was  a  great  similarity  in  methods  of  production 
bl  in  the  kinds  of  packages  used,  the  same  principles  should 
.']  >1\  in  Xe\v  York  State  as  in  the  other  sections,  and  that  at  any 
|  e,  since  these  sections  were  competitors  of  New  Yrork  State, 
i  might  be  desirable  for  New  York  growers  to  know  what  their 
kjnpetitors  were  doing,  and  planning  to  do,  in  the  important 
i  tter  of  packing  and  marketing  their  crop. 
If  The  Canadian  Apple  Packing  Law  antedates  the  New  York 

\T  by  several  years,  and  has  now  been  in  operation  long  enough 
&  produce  results.     Two  very  apparent  developments  have  fol- 
the  enforcement  of  this  law:     First,  orchard  packing  has 
eused  and  a  great  many  Central  Packing  Houses  have  been 
in  operation,  and,  secondly,  the  quantity  of  Canadian  apples 

>orted  has  increased  very  rapidly  in  proportion  to  the  total 

p.     The  second  development,  Canadians  believe,  is  caused  to  a 

ge  extent  by  the  first. 

WHY    THE    CENTRAL    PACKING    HOUSE    CAME    INTO    BEING 

The  reason  for  the  establishment  of  Central  Packing  Houses 
a  a  general  dissatisfaction  with  methods  of  orchard  packing, 

[895] 


:e 


896  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

and  a  belief  that  these  methods  did  not  allow  due  consideration  for 
certain  features  essential  to  the  successful  marketing  of  fruit. 
The  requisites  for  successful  marketing,  Canadian  growers  be- 
lieved, were :  First,  the  securing  of  large  quantities  of  fruit  that 
should  be  marketed  under  one  brand ;  secondly,  the  uniform  pack- 
ing and  standardization  of  this  fruit  so  that  each  package  was  as 
nearly  as  practicable  like  every  other  package  of  the  same  grade, 
and,  thirdly,  the  securing  and  utilizing  of  a  knowledge  of  market 
requirements  and  conditions. 

The  methods  of  orchard  packing  used  in  Canada  previous  to 
the  passage  of  their  "  Fruit  Marks  Act "  were  similar  to  those 
commonly  used  at  the  present  time  in  New  York  State,  and  an 
analysis  of  them  certainly  shows  that  they  did  not  permit  of  the 
fulfillment  of  the  market  fundamentals  just  mentioned. 

By  the  first  of  these  methods  the  grower  picks  and  packs  his 
own  crop  in  the  orchard,  a  method  that  does  not  bring  a  large 
quantity  of  fruit  together  for  marketing  under  one  brand,  even 
if  the  grower  produced  from  five  to  ten  thousand  barrels  of  fruit. 
At  the  present  time,  when  organizations  are  putting  on  the  market 
from  50,000  to  450,000  barrels  of  fruit  under  one  brand,  it  will 
be  seen  that  even  10,000  barrels  make  a  comparatively  small 
impression  on  a  market  receiving  approximately  2,000,000  barrels 
of  apples  a  year,  as  does  the  New  York  market. 

Neither  does  this  first  method  fulfill  the  second  requisite,  that 
of  uniform  packing,  for  aside  from  the  variation  that  is  certain  to 
result  from  barreling  an  orchard  tree  by  tree,  the  grower  is  always 
a  biased  judge  of  the  quality  of  his  own  fruit,  and  the  crop  that 
he  has  labored  to  produce  always  seems  a  little  better  to  him  than 
his  neighbor's,  or  one  in  which  he  has  no  personal  interest.  And 
thus  because  they  belong  to  him,  he  will  often  permit  apples  to  go 
into  a  better  grade  than  that  in  which  they  would  be  placed  if 
he  were  grading  his  neighbor's  fruit. 

During  the  operation  of  the  Apple  Packing  Train,  this  point 
was  well  illustrated  by  the  testimony  of  a  western  New  York 
grower,  who  stated  that  he  had  shipped  a  car  of  "  orchard  packed  " 
apples  to  the  New  York  market  and  followed  it  to  New  York  in 
order  to  supervise  its  selling.  Describing  his  experience,  he  said : 
"  When  I  saw  those  apples  in  New  York  City,  if  my  name  had  not 


CEATKAL  PACKING  HOUSES  FOK  FK.UIT 


897 


FIG.  252. —  CENTRAL  PACKING  HOUSE,  WITH  SEVEN 
MECHANICAL  GRADERS  DRIVEN  BY  2  MJ -HORSE-POWER 
GASOLINE  ENGINE.  CAPACITY,  200  BUSHELS  OF 
PEACHES  PER  HOUR,  PEB  MACHINE 


898  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

been  on  the  barrel,  I  should  have  sworn  that  I  never  had  packed 
them,  for  they  certainly  did  not  look  nearly  so  good  to  me  there 
as  they  did  in  my  own  orchard/' 

By  a  second  method  in  common  use,  the  grower  sold  his  fruit 
to  a  dealer  or  speculator,  the  grower  picking  and  the  dealer  pack- 
ing and  paying  by  the  barrel  for  the  various  grades  that  packed 
out.  In  this  case  the  dealer  had  difficulty  in  satisfactorily  super- 
vising packing  operations,  which  went  on  simultaneously  in  sev- 
eral orchards,  and  generally  a  dispute  arose  with  the  grower  as 
to  the  quality  of  fruit  to  be  put  in  the  various  grades.  As  it 
frequently  worked  out,  the  buyer's  packer  would  be  in  "  hot  water  " 
most  of  the  time  trying  to  follow  his  employer's  instructions,  defer 
to  the  grower's  ideas,  and  maintain  friendly  relations.  Conse- 
quently even  if  the  dealer  secured  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  that 
he  marked  under  one  brand,  it  was  very  seldom  uniformly  packed 
and  standardized. 

Under  the  third  common  method  of  orchard  packing,  the  grower 
sold  his  fruit  by  the  orchard,  the  dealer  doing  the  picking  and  the 
packing,  or  the  grower  doing  the  picking  and  the  dealer  doing 
the  packing.  Neither  of  these  two  methods  satisfactorily  standard- 
ized the  pack,  because  the  dealer  was  now  a  biased  judge  of  the 
quality  of  the  fruit.  He  owned  it  and  naturally  wished  to  pack 
out  as  many  "A"  and  -"  B  "  grade  apples  as  possible,  and  was  not 
therefore- careful  to  set  a  high  standard  for  his  grade,  nor  to  main- 
tain that  standard  during  the  packing  operations. 

Since  none  of  the  methods  of  orchard  packing  fulfilled  the  requi- 
sites for  the  successful  marketing  of  a  large  quantity  of  fruit, 
uniformly  packed,  the  Central  Packing  House  came  into  use.  It 
has  not  only  accomplished  its  chief  functions  but  also  has  furnished 
a  method  whereby  the  grower  is  relieved  of  the  responsibility 
of  supervising  unreliable  labor  during  the  busy  packing  season, 
and  has  avoided  personal  interference  on  the  part  of  grower  or 
buyer  in  the  endeavor  to  place  his  fruit  in  the  better  grades. 

TYPES  OF  PACKING  HOUSES 

Two  types  of  packing  houses  are  in  use.  The  one  most  com- 
monly used  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  the  Central  Packing  House 
idea  is  extensively  developed,  is  a  frost-proof  (common)  storage 
with  a  packing  room  added. 


CE.XTKAL  PACKING  HOUSES  FOK  FHUIT 


899 


The  storehouse  is  erected  either  by  a  local  buyer  or  by  a  cooper- 
ve  company.  The  type  of  building  is  shown  in  the  pictures 
d  diagrams.  The  warehouse  is  so  arranged  that  delivery  from 
gons  can  be  made  on  one  side  and  shipment  by  rail  on  the  other, 
The  apples  are  hauled  to  the  packing  house  in  barrels,  unheaded 
loosely  headed  without  grading,  except  that  culls  are  separated 
far  as  possible  in  picking. 

sP/afform  for /earn  del/vtry. 

l      '        .   -   I .. 


too? 


-PactringTableS 


Gar  Track 


FIG.  253. —  USUAL  FLOOR  PLAN  OF  PACKING  HOUSES, 
ARROWS  SHOW  HANDLING  OF  APPLES  IN  PACKINGT, 
PACKING  ROOM  GENERALLY  PLACED  WITH  SOUTH  OR' 
SOUTHEAST  EXPOSURE  TO  SECURE  GREATEST  AMOUNT 
OF  LIGHT 

I  The  second  type  of  Central  Packing  House  is  that  in 
le  fruit  is  packed  for  immediate  shipment  to  storage  or  market,, 
soon  as  possible  after  being  received,  instead  of  being  held  at 
ie  packing  house  for  any  appreciable  length  of  time. 


FIG.  254. —  ARRANGEMENT  OF  GRADERS  IN  PACKING 
HOUSE  WHEN  APPLES  ARE  TO  BE  IMMEDIATELY 
PACKED  AND  SHIPPED.  ARROWS  SHOW  MOVEMENT 
OF  APPLES. 

In  this  manner  small  quantities  of  fruit  may  be  packed  in 
nsiply  constructed  packing  sheds  without  mechanical  graders, 
he  accompanying  cuts  show  a  type  of  shed  used  for  this  purpose 
i  a  Canadian  Growers'  Cooperative  Company,  three  thousand 
arrels  of  fruit  being  received,  packed,  and  shipped  to  storage  in 
iis  shed  annually. 


900  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IK  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Another  type  of  packing  house  well  adapted  to  the  packing  of 
fruit  with  a  mechanical  grader  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cuts  and  diagrams.  The  special  feature  to  be  observed  in  its 
construction  is  the  provision  of  a  clear,  bright  light  over  the  grader 
and  convenient  facilities  for  delivering  the  fruit  to  the  grading 
machine. 

The  building  shown  in  the  cut  was  used  especially  for  pack- 
ing peaches  with  the  details  of  construction  adapted  to  a  peach- 
grading  machine,  but  these  could  easily  be  changed  to  suit  the 
type  of  apple  grader  to  be  used,  and  even  now  apples  are  graded 
to  some  extent  in  this  house. 

METHODS   OF   HANDLING   FRUIT 

The  apples  are  hauled  on  wagons  with  springs,  or  on  hay  racks 
containing  a  quantity  of  straw,  to  packing  houses  at  various  dis- 
tances up  to  eight  miles.  The  estimated  cost  of  such  hauling 
being  about  five  cents  a  barrel  for  a  three-mile  haul. 

The  grower  receives  a  receipt  for  the  number  of  barrels  he 
delivers.  The  apples  are  stored,  each  barrel  bearing  the  grower's 
name  or  number  and  the  variety.  Later  they  are  packed,  generally 
just  preceding  shipment,  by  a  gang  of  expert  packers  who  have 
no  knowledge  of  whose  apples  they  are  packing.  In  this  manner 
the  fruit  of  all  the  growers  delivering  to  the  packing  house  is 
standardized  and  bears  the  same  label.  After  packing,  the  grower 
receives  a  statement  from  the  packing  house  manager  as  to  the 
number  of  barrels  and  the  grades  that  packed  out.  In  cooperative 
associations  no  credit  is  given  for  culls.  Those  found  in  packing 
are  sold,  and  the  receipts  are  credited  to  the  general  packing  ex- 
pense. The  expense  of  packing  is  then  prorated  according  to  the 
number  of  barrels  delivered  to  the  Central  Packing  House,  and 
not  according  to  the  number  of  barrels  that  pack  out,  this  ar- 
rangement being  made  in  order  to  minimize  the  handling  of  culls 
and  the  delivery  of  .slack  barrels. 

The  grading  and  packing  in  these  houses  is  generally  done  with- 
out mechanical  graders  on  a  padded  sorting  table,  from  which  the 
apples  are  packed  into  baskets  and  then  put  into  barrels.  The 
packers  generally  work  in  gangs  of  six  or  seven  men,  a  foreman, 
two  sorters,  a  man  to  face  the  barrels,  one  to  rack  down  and  head 


CE.NTKAL  PACKIAC;  HOUSES  roit  FKUIT 


901 


LZI 


FIG.  255. —  SKYLIGHT  DIRECTLY  OVER  GR.VDERS, 
AND  No  POSTS  TO  INTERFERE  WITH  TEAM  DE- 
LIVERY. 


902  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  K\  XEW  YORK  STATE 

the  barrels,  another  to  deliver  apples  to  the  grading  table,  take 
away  packed  barrels,  and  place  empties.  The  foreman  helps  wher- 
ever necessary.  Such  a  gang  working  ten  hours  a  day,  it  is  said, 
will  pack  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  barrels,  depending 
on  the  quality,  size,  and  uniformity  of  the  fruit,  and  the  number 
of  varieties  on  which  they  wrork.  The  cost  of  packing  under  this 
system  is  given  as  from  nine  to  seventeen  cents  per  barrel. 

An  additional  charge  of  from  three  to  ten  cents  a  barrel  is  made 
in  plants  with  a  storage  capacity  of  10,000  barrels  and  upwards  in 
order  to  cover  storage,  manager's  salary,  interest  and  repairs  on 
warehouse,  and  expenses  of  handling  incidental  to  loading  on  cars. 
The  managers,  however,  are  sometimes  paid  by  the  barrel,  or, 
where  cooperative  selling  is  practiced,  receive  a  percentage  of  the 
returns  obtained  from  sales.  Such  a  method  of  operation  as  Las 
been  described  is,  of  course,  especially  practicable  for  cooperative 
associations  of  small  growers  who  expect  to  use  only  common  (not 
refrigerator)  storage  and  desire  to  standardize  and  market  their 
fruit  under  a  common  label.  In  such  organizations  the  common 
practice  is  to  pool  the  fruit,  sell  it,  and  return  to  the  grower  the 
season's  average  price  on  the  different  varieties  and  grades. 

When  large  amounts  of  fruit  are  to  be  handled,  however,  much 
more  rapid  grading  is  necessary,  and  a  mechanical  grader  must 
be  employed.  The  type  of  grader  to  be  used  depends  on  the 
capacity  desired  and  individual  preference  for  the  principle  of 
operation. 

Mechanical  graders  with  a  capacity  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
to  four  hundred  barrels  a  clay  are  being  operated  in  houses  similar 
in  type  at  a  packing  cost  of  from  six  to  twelve  cents  per  barrel, 
by  using  a  gang  of  from  eight  or  ten  men. 

Those  using  mechanical  graders  assert  that  the  most  desirable 
method  is  to  pick  into  crates  in  the  orchard  and  haul  directly  to 
the  packing  house,  the  apples  being  dumped  from  the  crates  on 
the  table  of  the  grader  or  its  conveyor.  Each  grower  receives 
a  receipt  on  delivery.  A  small  book  is  kept  in  the  office  for  each 
grower,  in  which  each  load  is  entered  as  it  packs  out.  The  cost 
of  packing  is  apportioned  to  the  number  of  bushels  delivered, 
and  the  culls  are  sold  and  credited  to  the  general  packing  expense 
account. 


CENTRAL  I'ACKISU  HOUSES  FOR  FRUIT  903 

PRACTICABILITY  DEMONSTRATED  BY  INCREASE 

The  increasing  use  of  central  packing  houses  in  Canada,  both 
by  dealers'  and  farmers'  cooperative  companies,  would  seem  to 
prove  the  practicability  of  the  central  packing-house  system  under 
a  compulsory  apple  packing  law,  and  should,  therefore,  prove  suc- 
cessful under  Xew  York  State  conditions.  The  central  packing 
house  makes  it  possible  to  pack  uniformly  a  larger  quantity  of 
fruit  under  one  label  and  facilitates  marketing  by  enabling  the 
packer  or  packing  company  to  acquire  a  reputation  for  their 
brand,  and  to  refill  repeat  orders  from  satisfied  customers  before 
this  brand  is  forgotten. 

In  the  Annapolis  Valley  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  the  central 
packing-house  system  is  extensively  developed,  nearly  ninety  per 
cent  of  the  fruit  grown  is  packed  in  central  packing  houses,  either 
in  the  packing  house  of  the  dealer,  or  that  of  a  cooperative  com- 
pany, the  reason  for  this  being  that  the  better  and  more  uniformly 
packed  fruit  from  these  houses  will  bring  better  average  prices 
than  orchard  packed  fruit. 

Now  that  they  have  secured  through  the  central  packing  house 
the  uniform  grading  of  a  large  quantity  of  apples  to  be  sold 
under  one  label,  it  is  interesting  to  see  bow  the  fruit  growers  of 
Nova  Scotia  are  attacking  the  question  of  selling  their  product, 
and  the  further  question  of  securing  and  utilizing  a  knowledge  of 
market  conditions,  which  they  believe  is  the  third  requisite  for 
successful  marketing. 

COMBINATION  OF  PACKING  HOUSES 

Several  years  ago,  some  thirteen  of  these  central  packing  houses 
decided  to  pack  the  same  grades  of  fruit,  pool  it,  and  sell  it 
through  a  central  organization.  The  following  year  thirty-three 
companies  followed  this  plan,  and  last  year  there  were  forty-three 
subordinate  packing  houses  that  marketed  their  fruit  through  the 
central  office  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  United  Fruit  Com- 
panies, Ltd.,  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  central  office  representing 
these  companies  controlled  approximately  450,000  barrels  of  fruit, 
packed  as  uniformly  as  possible  by  the  subordinate  packing 
houses;  and,  because  the  company  handled  so  large  a  quantity 
of  fruit,  it  was  able  to  accomplish  in  the  way  of  systematic  market- 
ing what  separate  companies  could  not  have  done. 


904  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK 

They  have  representatives  abroad  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
who  in  addition  to  soliciting  business,  inspect  the  condition  of 
fruit  on  arrival  and  see  that  it  is  not  misrepresented  and  that 
carting  charges  are  not  duplicated.  They  also  keep  the  central 
office  advised  as  to  the  condition  of  the  various  markets  and  the 
quantities  of  fruit  en  route  to  them.  If  it  appears  that  the 
Liverpool  market,  for  example,  is  likely  to  be  over  supplied,  the 
United  Fruit  Companies  route  a  shipment  to  London  or  to  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  or  time  a  consignment  to  arrive  at  Liverpool  about 
the  time  that  the  glut  should  be  cleared  up  and  better  prices 
prevail.  By  this  system  the  United  Companies  of  Nova  Scotia 
claim  to  receive  better  average  prices  for  the  season  on  their 
fruit  than  are  obtained  for  fruit  of  similar  quality. 

They  have  also  built  up  a  reputation  for  their  brand,  so  that 
retailers  and  distributors  in  the  English  markets  have  expressed 
a  preference  for  it.  The  remarkable  part  of  the  whole  organization 
is  that  this  entire  system  of  marketing  was  accomplished  at  rela- 
tively little  expense.  The  average  sales  expense  of  a  barrel  of 
apples  is  approximately  only  four  cents,  an  item  that  takes 
the  place  of  the  commission  charge  they  previously  paid. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  these  fruit  growers  are  endeavoring  to 
comply  with  the  apple-marketing  fundamentals;  first,  a  large 
quantity  of  fruit  under  one  brand;  secondly,  a  uniform  package, 
and,  thirdly,  a  utilization  of  knowledge  of  market  conditions. 

PLAN  WELL   ADAPTED  TO   NEW  YORK   STATE. 

There  are  ample  facilities  for  the  establishing  of  central  pack- 
ing houses  in  New  York  State.  A  dealer  may  easily  establish 
such  an  institution  in  connection  with  the  warehouse  that  he  uses 
and  insist  that  all  fruit  that  he  purchases  must  be  delivered  to 
him  at  the  packing  house  and  there  be  packed  under  his  brands. 
It  may  be  that  he  will  eventually  pack  fruit  that  he  does  not 
buy,  charging  a  specified  price  for  each  barrel,  but  insisting  that 
fruit  so  packed  shall  be  packed  under  his  labels,  and  that  he 
shall  receive  a  commission  for  selling  it. 

A  second  method  that  will  probably  come  into  use  will  be  the 
formation  of  packing  companies  in  connection  with  cold,  or  com- 
mon, storage  warehouses.  These  companies  will  charge  a  specified 


CENTRAL  PACKING  HOUSES  FOR  FRUIT  905 

price  by  the  barrel  for  the  packing,  and  assume  the  responsibility 
for  complying  with  the  requirements  of  the  New  York  Apple 
Grading  Law.  They  will  place  on  the  barrel  the  individual 
farmer's  brand,  in  addition  to  the  markings  required  by  the 
Apple  Grading  Law. 

The  third  method,  practicable  in  New  York  State,  is  one  that 
has  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  so  many  packing  houses  in 
Canada  and  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States ;  namely,  the  for- 
mation of  cooperative  associations  among  growers.  These  organi- 
zations either  erect  or  rent  packing  and  storage  space,  employ  their 
own  manager,  pack  under  an  association  brand,  and  sell  their  fruit 
through  their  manager,  or  through  an  affiliation  of  similar 
organizations. 

In  New  York  State,  the  use  of  central  packing  houses  estab- 
lished under  any  of  these  methods  is  certain  to  result  in  an  im- 
provement of  the  package  over  the  orchard  packed  fruit,  and  will 
be  the  first  step  that  must  be  taken  by  growers  if  they  are  sucess- 
fully  to  meet  competition  in  the  apple  markets  of  the  world  and  to 
obtain  prices  that  will  enable  them  to  grow  fruit  with  profit. 


SELLING    ON    COMMISSION    AND    BUYING    DIREC 
FROM  PRODUCERS 

J.  H.  KILLOUGH,  XEW  YORK  CITY. 

The  subject  of  marketing  farm  produce  has  of  late  years 
tracted  widespread  discussion.  It  has  engaged  the  attention 
thoughtful  students  of  trade  economics,  of  those  seeking  to  p 
as  reformers  in  the  estimation  of  people  misled  by  false  and 
aggerated  statements,  and  of  practical  market  men  whose  ] 
manence  in  the  distributive  economy  depends  on  their  adaj 
tion  to  changed  and  changing  conditions  of  trade. 

DIRECT  SALES  TO  CONSUMER  IMPRACTICAL  EXCEPT  IN  A  SMALL 

In  the  great  centers  of  urban  population  the  day  of  dir 
dealings  between  producers  and  consumers  has  long  since  pass 
with  insignificant  exceptions  having  no  bearing  upon  the  m 
problem.  In  the  metropolitan  district  of  ISTew  York  and  its  s 
urbs,  for  instance,  there  may  be  two  or  three  millions  of  poi 
where  farm  products  must  be  brought  for  service  to  the  milli 
of  individuals  as  food;  and  the  domestic  products  so  required 
drawn  from  all  parts  of  our  country.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
refer  to  the  manifest  impossibility  of  direct  dealings  between  th 
myriads  of  consumers  and  more  or  less  widely  separated  p 
ducers.  Clearly,  the  products  needed  by  the  consumers  must 
assembled  in  appropriate  kind,  quality,  and  quantity  in  dep 
where  they  may  be  reached  quickly  and  conveniently  by  mi) 
thousands  of  circles  of  consumers  throughout  the  length  s 
breadth  of  the  urban  communities.  Even  these  widely  scatte 
depots,  represented  by  retail  stores,  cannot  to  any  considera 
extent  obtain  their  supplies  directly  from  producers,  becai 
their  requirements  are  selective  and  not  of  volume  to  permi 
direct  economical  transportation,  and  for  many  other  reaso 
They  must  draw  from  other  and  larger  depots  where  the  gr 
variety  of  farm  products  can  be  assembled,  classified,  and  of 
graded  as  to  quality,  and  where  regular  supplies  can  be  quic 
obtained,  according  to  the  needs  of  their  customers.  These  larj 

[006] 


SELLING  ON  COMMISSION  AND  BTYIXCJ   DIKECT          907 

>nts  correspond  to  the  jobbing  houses,  which  in  all  great  markets 
form  the  necessary  function  of  drawing  supplies  from  the 
ater  receiving  stations,  assembling  them  at  points  convenient 
the  smaller  retail  distributors,  and  dealing  them  out  in  lots 
Deeded. 

These  larger  depots,  distributing  to  retailers,  may  or  may  not 
\v  supplies  directly  from  producers  or  from  interior  collectors 
produce,  according  to  circumstances.  As  a  rule,  in  the  normal 
1  unrestrained  development  of  the  distributive  machinery,  they 
imt.  Their  requirements  are  too  much  specialized  and  usually 

I  immediate  to  permit  dealings  with  primary  sources  of  supply 
•remote.     In  practice,   they  deal  for  the  most  part  with  the 
|1  larger  wholesale  markets,  which  are  the  first  recipients  of 

city's  supply  of  food  products. 

there  is  nothing  in  the  constitution  of  the  distributive  ma- 
[nery  of  a  great  city  which  bars  a  shortening  of  this  course  of 
fribution  as  a  result  of  open  competition,  whenever  it  can  be 
lie  economically  and  in  such  manner  as  to  meet  the  demands  of 
,sumers.  The  distributive  machinery  contains  within  itself 

seeds  of  its  own  economical  development,  and  short  cuts  of 
iribution  are  continually  being  established  in  regard  to  par- 
ilar  packings  of  produce  as  opportunities  arise.  But  the  fact 
t,  in  the  main,  despite  a  free  and  open  competition,  these  dif- 
pnt  centers  of  distribution  —  the  first  wholesale  receiving 
[tots,  the  second  selective  or  jobbing  depots,  and  the  third  retail 
lots  —  have  persisted,  is  conclusive  evidence  of  their  necessity ; 

I 1  all  the  rantings  of  demagogues  or  efforts  of  would-be  re- 
Imers,   based   upon    ignorance   and   misconception,    can   never 
Inmate  them  any  faster  than  the  forces  of  the  trade  itself  will 
fiove  agencies  of  distribution  that  may,   from  time  to  time, 
I  pine  obsolete  as  to  particular  products. 

fhe    producer    cannot,    with    a    few    minor    exceptions,    deal 
I pctly  with  these  secondary  or  subsequent  agencies  of  city  dis- 
mtion.    He  is,  except  in  a  few  cases,  too  far  away  for  personal 
mination  of  his  goods  by  the  buyer;   the  determination  of 
-  is  difficult  unless  goods  are  subject  to  immediate  demand 
numbers  of  buyers;  the  machinery  of  salesmanship  is  not 
lomically   available  to  a  producer  selling  farm  products  to 


908  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

classes  of  trade  whose  demands  are  selective.  And,  furthermore, 
his  products  are  seasonal,  and  the  business  of  carrying  such 
of  them  as  are  capable  of  being  carried  to  seasons  of  nonproduc- 
tion  cannot  be  economically  done  on  the  farms,  if  modern  facilities 
of  preservation  are  employed. 

TRUE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  COMMISSION  MERCHANT 

The  business  of  primary  city  distribution,  at  least  in  the  greater 
cities,  must  therefore  be  done  chiefly  by  wholesale  receivers  who 
can  handle  the  entire  crop  of  a  distant  producer,  either  by  pur- 
chase upon  some  definite  price  or  basis  of  valuation  agreed  upon, 
or  as  an  agent  acting  for  the  producer.  This  latter  agency  is 
the  true  function  of  the  commission  merchant,  who  thus  occupies 
a  logical  and  indispensable  place  in  the  natural  development  of 
distribution. 

The  natural,  logical,  and  legitimate  function  of  the  commission 
merchant  has  been  covered  up  and  obscured  in  the  public  mind 
and  in  the  minds  of  many  producers  of  farm  products  by  two 
classes  of  agitators:  first,  by  those  who  with  no  economic  or 
practical  knowledge  of  distributive  necessities  have  ignorantly 
classed  all  middlemen,  and  commission  merchants  in  particular, 
as  parasites  and  a  useless  excrescence  upon  the  food  industry; 
secondly,  by  those  who  have  seized  upon  occasional  instances  of 
dishonesty  in  the  business  to  characterize  the  whole  as  corrupt, 
and  who  attribute  to  the  wholesale  receiving  trade  powers  of  con- 
trol over  the  prices  of  farm  products  which  in  fact  have  no  exist- 
ence. 

Charges  of  uselessness  of  the  produce  commission  trade  are 
utterly  ineffective;  the  trade  will  persist  as  long  as  it  is  eco- 
nomically needed  and  no  longer.  As  to  charges  of  dishonesty, 
there  is  doubtless  dishonest  dealing  among  produce  commission 
merchants  just  as  there  is  among  men  in  all  other  pursuits  — 
there  is  no  good  reason  to  believe  it  to  be  more.  Reputable  mer- 
chants are  favorable  to  any  reasonable  system  of  state  protection 
of  shippers'  interests  which  will  effectively  weed  out  dishonest 
dealers  whose  competition  is  always  a  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  the 
more  scrupulous.  Certainly  the  economic  necessity  of  shippers' 
agents  cannot,  as  a  principle,  be  condemned  because  some  are 


SELLING  ON  COMMISSION  AND  BUYING  DIRECT          909 

not  straight.  There  are  abundant  means  of  determining  reliable 
personalities  and  of  forming  close  and  satisfactory  relationships 
between  principals  and  agents,  if  intelligent  effort  is  directed  to 
this  end. 

In  respect  to  the  more  staple  farm  products  —  such  as  may  and 
must  in  large  part  be  carried  in  storage  from  seasons  of  surplus 
to  season  of  nonproductioii  —  the  arrangement  for  the  sale  of  a 
crop  through  commission  agents  permits  the  grower,  if  he  so 
desires,  most  easily  to  take  part  in  this  more  or  less  speculative 
feature  of  the  business.  But  the  storage  of  surplus  productions 
for  later  use  is  a  business  that  requires  astute  judgment  and  a 
broad  knowledge  of  prospective  supply.  Even  to  the  most  astute, 
it  is  a  hazardous  phase  of  the  distributing  business  and  is  most 
naturally  engaged  in  by  the  larger  wholesale  receivers  who,  as 
a  rule,  act  both  as  commission  agents  and  as  dealers  on  their  own 
account. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  producer,  the  formation  of  close 
and  confidential  relations  with  a  reliable  commission  agent  for 
the  sale  of  his  products  would  seem  to  be  the  most  logical  method 
of  marketing ;  the  success  of  such  relation  depends  upon  an  intelli- 
gent understanding  on  both  sides,  a  mutual  and  deserved  con- 
fidence, and  a  willingness  on  the  part  of  the  shipper  to  be  guided 
by  the  experience  of  his  agent  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  grading, 
packing,  etc.  There  is  good  ground  for  the  assertion  that  a  re- 
liable and  competent  commission  agent  can  place  a  shipper's  pro- 
ducts in  the  most  favorable  channels  of  distribution  more  cheaply 
than  it  can  be  done  by  any  other  means. 

BUYING  FROM   THE  ORCHARD 

Comparing  the  commission  method  of  sale,  particularly  of 
orchard  products,  with  the  system  of  selling  outright  at  the 
orchard,  there  are  two  points  of  view.  As  a  rule,  under  usual 
conditions,  it  will  be  found  that  the  buyers  are  the  same  class 
of  merchants  who  act  as  commission  merchants,  and  it  is  to  be 
considered  that  a  merchant  buying  fruit  and  dealing  in  it  on 
his  own  account  requires  and  deserves  a  larger  profit  that  he  would 
be  satisfied  with  as  a  commission.  If  the  grower  could  so  pack 
and  divide  his  fruit  as  to  sell  it  directly  to  the  smaller  classes 


910  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

of  distributors  —  that  is,  to  the  customers  of  the  commission 
merchant  —  there  would  seem  to  be  a  saving,  until  it  is  considered 
that  the  jobber  has  no  inducement  to  go  to  the  country  to  buy, 
incurring  additional  expense,  unless  he  can  buy  cheaper  than 
from  the  commission  merchant,  where  he  can  choose  and  select 
from  a  larger  assortment.  Therefore,  although  there  are  doubt- 
less exceptions,  the  advantage  of  country  selling  will  probably 
prove  to  be  nothing  in  general  practice,  except  in  cases  where  the 
grower  and  packer  is  astute  enough  to  take  advantage  of  specula- 
tive buying  on  an  abnormal  basis  —  occasions  which  are  not 
frequent. 


EXPORTING  APPLES 

0.   W.   KlMBALL,  NEW  YOEK   ClTY 

A  number  of  pages  might  be  written 
regarding  the  exporting  of  apples,  but, 
without  going  into  details,  let  us  consider 
briefly  the  essential  requirements  and 
results  connected  with  this  branch  of  the 
apple  industry. 

GEOWTII  OF   THE  BUSINESS 

That  this  branch  of  the  apple  trade  is 
most  important  can  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing totals  of  exports  during  the  last  35  years: 

No.  bbls. 
Periods  of  exports  Exported 

1880-1889  ( 10   years) 7,201,183 

1890-1809  (10    years) 12,933,117 

1900-1909  ( 10   years) 22,386,805 

1910-1914  (5    years) 13,620,378 

From  this  it  can  be  noted  that  the  export  movement  has  doubled 
during  the  last  fifteen  years.  Further,  during  this  period  average 
net  prices  have  increased  35  per  cent. 

Such  figures,  showing  a  tremendous  increase  in  tonnage  and 
growing  values,  are  a  fitting  preface  to  this  article,  and  an  eloquent 
call  to  the  importance  of  fostering  foreign  demand  for  American 
apples.  American  apples  have  been  generally  and  favorably 
known  in  England  for  years;  and,  while  England  is  still  far  in 
the  lead  of  all  other  countries  as  a  consumer  of  this  commodity, 
there  has  sprung  up  in  recent  years  a  material  and  constantly  in- 
creasing demand  for  this  fruit  in  the  northern  countries  of  Con- 
tinental Europe,  in  South  America,  and  in  Australia. 

IMPORTANCE    OF   EXPORTING    ONLY   THE    BEST 

Many  attentions  are  necessary  in  the  harvesting,  transporting, 
and  marketing  of  apples  in  foreign  countries  to  make  this  busi- 
ness satisfactory  and  profitable  to  those  engaged  therein,  but  the 
primary  and  most  essential  of  all  the  requirements  may  be 


912  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

summed  up  briefly  in  this:  pack  only  good  quality;  market  only 
good  quality.  Success  in  an  attempt  to  market  apples  profitably 
abroad  is  not  always  attained;  failures  are  often  due  to  reasons 
other  than  overstocked  markets,  poor  quality,  and  poor  packing. 
Poor  transportation  facilities,  delays,  bad  ventilation,  use  of 
ordinary  storage  when  cold  storage  was  necessary,  neglect  in  hav- 
ing all  packages  tightly  packed  and  made  additionally  solid,  and, 
further,  the  selection  of  varieties  suitable  for  various  markets  — 
all  or  any  of  these  signal  danger,  and  result  in  disappointments 
and  losses,  whereas  by  proper  attention  to  the  requisites  of  safe 
and  satisfactory  delivery  to  the  consumers  abroad,  suitable  re- 
turns might  be  enjoyed. 

VARIETIES   FOR  SPECIAL  MARKETS 

Great  markets  of  the  world,  'such  as  are  buyers  of  American 
apples,  have,  like  the  American  markets,  a  marked  preference  as 
to  varieties  and  also  as  to  the  time  when  different  varieties  are 
in  greatest  demand.  Therefore,  the  exporter  should  determine 
by  correspondence  at  what  rate  and  at  what  time  his  apples  may 
be  best  marketed  abroad. 

Such  a  general  treatise  as  this  cannot  easily  set  forth  in  detail 
all  the  minor  facts,  essential  though  they  are,  particularly  as  each 
market  of  each  consuming  country  has  its  own  specially  favored 
variety  or  varieties  of  apples.  However,  Baldwins  may  generally 
be  said  to  be  well  accepted  everywhere,  with  the  exception  of 
South  America,  perhaps,  where  still  more  hardy  kinds  become 
necessary  on  account  of  the  trying  ocean  transportation  and  cli- 
matic conditions. 

SALES  BY  AUCTION 

In  regard  to  the  selling  of  American  apples  in  all  the  large 
markets  of  Europe,  there  is,  generally  speaking,  one  method  in 
vogue  —  selling  at  auction.  Upon  the  arrival  of  an  apple-laden 
steamer  the  apple  cargo  is  invoiced,  cataloged,  and  advertised  to 
be  sold  at  one  or  another  of  the  fruit  auctions  established  for  that 
purpose.  This  method  of  selling  seems  to  be  the  proper  method, 
and  one  by  which  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  under  con- 
ditions of  fruit  delivery  across  the  Atlantic.  There,  constant, 
regular,  and  uniform  supplies  may  not  be  secured  as  in  our  own 


EXPORTING  APPLES  913 

markets.  Foreign  markets  are  supplied  in  accordance  with  the 
schedules  of  ocean  steamers  and  in  keeping  with  the  space  they 
offer  for  this  commodity.  It  may  be  noted  that  supplies  are  often 
in  excess  of  demand  and  prices  average  low,  while  perhaps  within 
a  week  following,  under  lighter  receipts  abroad,  prices  mount 
materially  higher.  Therefore,  values  that  may  be  expected  and 
obtained,  in  connection  with  this  export  trade,  vary  in  ratio  to 
the  supplies  available  and  to  each  importing  country's  domestic 
business  conditions. 

COMPETITION   WITH    CANADIAN  APPLES 

Generally  speaking,  the  entire  crop  of  Nova  Scotia  and  a  large 
percentage  of  the  crop  of  Ontario  must  of  necessity  find  a  market 
in  Europe,  and  the  probable  quantities  produced  there  must  be 
considered  in  reckoning  prospects  for  apples  sent  from  the  United 
States.  This  fact  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when  figuring 
possible  profits  that  may  be  realized  from  the  exportation  of 
apples:  There  is  no  reasonable  chance  of  succeeding,  to  any 
degree,  by  the  exportation  now  and  then  of  a  parcel  or  a  carload 
in  an  attempt  to  obtain  high  prices  as  indicated  in  market  reports 
from  abroad.  There  are  too  many  others  attempting  to  do  exactly 
the  same  thing,  the  reshlt  being  that  an  oversupply  is  for- 
warded to  participate  in  those  particularly  attractive  prices.  This 
of  course,  means  too  heavy  offerings  and  a  break  in  values.  Suc- 
cess is  best  obtained  by  the  exporter  who  begins1  with  the  season, 
ships  gradually  and  regularly,  and  profits  by  the  average  values  of 
the  season. 

THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE 

Much  has  been  said,  many  questions  have  been  asked,  and  con- 
siderable stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  demand  for  apples  in 
South  American  markets,  and  upon  the  growing  consumption  there 
displayed.  This  has  been  materially  overrated  and  does  not  hold 
the  importance  to  the  apple  business  that  many  believe.  Although 
American  apples  are  appreciated  in  the  South  American  coun- 
tries, the  cost  of  delivering  to  the  consumers  there  is  so  great  that 
the  trade  never  has  enjoyed  or  never  will  attain  to  any  material 
portion.  This  can  be  understood  when  it  is  known  the  cost  con- 
nected with  this  business  totals  an  average  of  eight  dollars  per 


914  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

barrel  from  the  port  of  New  York  to  the  port  of  Buenos  Ai 
This  is  the  mere  transportation  cost  from  port  to  port.  To  i 
must  be  added  cost  of  the  fruit  and  various  handling  char^ 
Therefore,  when  we  approach  the  consumer  in  South  Ame? 
with  apples  having  a  wholesale  cost  in  those  markets  of  twelvt 
fourteen  dollars  a  barrel,  there  is  a  small  chance  of  building 
an  extensive  demand. 

PROSPECTS    FOR    CROP    OF    1915 

The  outlook  for  the  current  season  may  be  said  to  be  1 
favorable  and  unfavorable.      Favorable,   for  the  reason  thatj 
England  and  some  other  European  countries  labor  was  nevei 
thoroughly  and  so  profitably  employed,  and  this  means  ready  s 
at  good  values,  for  any  popular  food  offerings.     Unfavorable, 
reason  of  Germany's  markets  being  eliminated;  by  reason  of 
creased  ocean  freight  rates  as  compared  with  other  years ;  by 
son  of  cold  storage  accommodations  aboard  steamship  being 
attainable ;  and  by  reason  of  the  transportation  facilities  offei 
which  are  as  a  rule  less  safe  than  in  former  years,  owing  to  the 
that  the  fastest,  best  ventilated  and  most  desirable  of  ocean  ste 
ships  have  been  eliminated  from  the  service,  and  slower,  po( 
steamships  for  the  purpose  substituted. 

However,  it  is  expected  that  space  for  apples  this  season  r 
be  had  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  last  year,  and  that 
steamship  companies  will  be  able  to  transport  practically  the  & 
quantities  as  last  year,  providing  prices  may  be  obtained  abi 
justifying  such  a  movement.  Ocean  rates  to  the  principal  pi 
of  England  are  now  fixed  at  approximately  $1.25  per  barrel, 
to  Scandinavian  ports  at  approximately  $2  per  barrel.  Tl 
rates  seem  high;  and,  coupled  with  a, higher  initial  cost  of  ap| 
ruling,  the  apple  trade  cannot  well  expect  an  export  movem 
greater  that  65  per  cent  of  that  of  last  season. 


AUCTION    HOUSES    AS    DISTRIBUTORS    OF    FRUITS 
AND  VEGETABLES 

VICTOR  K.  MCELHENY,  JR., 

I 'resident  of  The  Fruit  Auction  Company,  New  York  City,  and  of  the  Ameri- 
can  Fruit  and  Produce  Auction  Association 

PUBLIC.1   ATTENTION    CENTERED   ON    THE   AUCTION    SYSTEM 

Iii  recent  years  a  tremendous  impulse 
has  been  given  in  all  lines  of  business  to 
the  adoption  of  efficient  up-to-date 
methods.  Growers  and  shippers  have 
made  great  strides  in  growing  and  in 
packing.  Crops,  as  well  as  population, 
are  increasing.  The  problem  is  so  to 
increase  distribution  as  to  market  these 
crops  satisfactorily.  This  important 
marketing  problem  has  centered  attention 
upon  the  public  sale  system  of  selling  fruits  and  vegetables. 

PREJUDICE  DIES  HARD 

Whenever  the  word  "  auction  "  has  appeared,  it  has  suggested 
a  red  nag  —  a  man  standing  on  a  counter  or  chair,  calling  loudly, 
and  knocking  down  under  the  hammer  whatever  by  way  of  rubbish 
happens  to  be  at  hand.  With  regard  to  the  public  sales  of  fruit 
as  conducted  by  the  largo  auction  companies,  the  picture  is  so  en- 
tirely different  that  it  is  hard  to  make  a  comparison. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   BUSINESS 

In  this  country,  public  sales  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  young 
compared  with  the  business  abroad.  In  England,  Germany,  and 
France  public  sales  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  tremendously 
important  and  are  becoming  increasingly  so.  Public  sale  has  been 
in  practice  abroad  for  one  hundred  years;  all  varieties  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  are  there  sold  at  public  auction,  also  plants  and  cut 
flowers.  The  importance  of  public  sales  in  Great  Britain  will  be 
emphasized  when  it  is  stated  that  during  the  past  year  England 

[015] 


916  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

imported  into  Liverpool,  London,  and  Glasgow  about  1,788,236 
barrels  and  1,096,054  boxes  of  American  and  Canadian  apples, 
nearly  all  of  which  were  sold  at  public  auction.  In  the  United 
States,  public  sales  began  at  about  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  and 
have  had  a  wonderful  and  sound  growth  ever  since.  Today,  85 
per  cent  of  the  Florida  oranges  and  grapefruit ;  75  per  cent  of  the 
pineapples,  oranges,  and  grapefruit  from  Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  and 
Isle  of  Pines;  98  per  cent  of  the  California  oranges,  lemons, 
cherries,  peaches,  apricots,  pears,  plums,  and  prunes;  and  100  per 
cent  of  the  Sicilian  lemons,  Almeria  grapes  from  Spain,  and  the 
cherries,  pears,  and  prunes  from  the  Pacific  Xorthwest,  which  are 
consumed  in  the  large  cities  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  —  are  now  sold  at  public  sale.  In  addition,  the  bananas 
that  are  consumed  in  J^ew  York  and  Baltimore  are  disposed  of  in 
this  way,  and  also  in  some  cities,  tomatoes,  canteloupes,  peaches, 
watermelons,  and  potatoes.  Last  year,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars  worth  of  chestnuts  from  France,  S-pain,  and 
Italy  added  to  the  vast  volume  of  business  going  through  the  auc- 
tion companies  of  Xew  York. 

SERVICE   RENDERED   BY   THE   AUCTION   HOUSES 

The  auction  house,  upon  receipt  of  a  manifest  of  the  fruit  to  be 
offered  for  sale,  advertises  the  sale,  giving  the  day  and  hour,  and 
prints  a  catalogue  of  the  offering.  In  the  catalogue  the  fruit  is 
divided  into  convenient  sized  lots,  according  to  sizes  and  grades 
of  the  fruit,  and  each  grower's  fruit  is  sold  separately.  The 
offering  is  "  lined  up "  on  the  railroad  pier  according  to  the 
line  numbers  on  the  catalogue,  in  order  that  the  fruit  may  be 
readily  inspected  by  the  buyer  and  a  notation  made  by  him  on 
his  catalogue  as  to  the  condition  and  quality,  and  so  that  the 
fruit  can  be  speedily  delivered  after  the  sale.  The  auction 
house  opens  a  certain  number  of  packages  of  each  offering  for 
the  buyer's  inspection ;  sells  the  fruit  at  public  auction  to  the 
buyer  making  the  highest  bid ;  makes  a  record  of  the  sale ;  super- 
intends the  delivery  of  the  fruit  sold  to  the  buyer ;  discounts  and 
guarantees  the  amount  of  the  sale;  supplies  the  seller  with  a 
price  catalogue  of  the  prices  realized  on  the  sale;  and,  within 
twenty-four  hours  of  the  sale,  sends  the  seller  an  account-sales, 
together  with  a  check  for  the  proceeds  of  the  sale. 


AUCTIOX  HOUSES  AS  DISTRIBUTORS  OF  FRUITS 


91' 


918  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XKW  YORK  STATE 

PUBLICITY  AND  OPEN   COMPETITIVE   BIDDING    IMPORTANT   FEATURES 

An  important  feature  of  the  auction  system  is  that  its  workings 
are  in  plain  view  of  all.  Daily  auctions  are  public  sales  in  every 
sense  of  the  word.  The  auction  companies  have  no  business 
secrets.  Any  questions  that  may  be  asked  of  them  can  and 
will  be  answered  upon  communication  with  them.  The  public 
sale  system  calls  for  a  complete  daily  record  of  sales,  which  is 
printed,  and  may  be  referred  to  at  will  by  both  seller  and  buyer. 
Xot  less  important  than  publicity  —  in  fact  it  might  be  called  the 
keystone  of  the  auction  system  —  is  the  selling  of  the  com- 
modity to  the  buyer  who  will  bid  the  most  after  open  competitive 
bidding.  The  commodity  is  offered  for  sale  in  such  sizes  and 
grades  that  no  buyer  is  compelled  to  purchase  something  that  he 
does  not  want  in  order  to  secure  what  he  wants. 

THE  PRIVATE   SAI  E   WAY 

Picture  a  large  business  —  for  example,  that  of  the  Xew  York 
State  barrelled  apple,  the  northwestern  boxed  apple,  the  canta- 
loupe, the  watermelon,  the  peach,  or  in  fact  any  line  of  fruit  or 
vegetables  where  the  production  has  become  large  —  divided  into 
small,  scattered  selling  units  rather  than  concentrated  in  one  place. 
Picture  the  buyers  scattered.  Picture  two  men  quietly  negotiat- 
ing over  the  price.  The  seller  is  trying  to  get  as  high  a  price  as 
the  drift  of  the  market  will  stand.  He  is  handicapped  by  the  fact 
that  he  must  keep  in  mind  the  retaining  of  the  buyer's  patronage. 
The  seller  is  further  handicapped  by  not  knowing  what  supplies 
his  competitors  are  offering.  The  seller  has  undesirable  sizes  and 
grades  of  fruit  which  the  buyer  does  not  want,  but  which  the  seller 
is  inducing  the  buyer  to  take  by  offering  the  desirable  fruit  for  less 
money.  The  buyer  is  trying  to  obtain  the  fruit  at  as  low  a  price 
as  he  can.  No  public  record  is  kept  of  the  price  for  which  the 
goods  sold. 

THE  PUBLIC  SALES  WAY 

After  viewing  this  mental  picture,  compare  the  private  sale 
system  with  the  public  sales  in  the  auction  room,  and  you  will  gain 
the  viewpoint  of  the  progressive  grower  of  California  and  Florida. 
Picture  all  the  fruit  and  all  the  buyers  concentrated  in  one  place 


AUCTION  HOUSES  AS  DISTRIBUTORS  OF  FRUITS         919 

at  one  time.  The  buyers  arrive  in  time  to  inspect  the  fruit,  which 
is  displayed  in  one  large  warehouse  or  on  the  railroad  pier.  In 
that  large  exhibit  each  buyer  —  whether  the  fine  fruiterer,  the 
department  store,  the  chain  store,  the  retail  grocer,  or  the  pushcart 
man — finds  the  sizes  and  grades  that  he  wants,  or  in  fact  that  he 
must  have  if  he  is  to  keep  his  customers  from  goiiiii  next  door  for 
their  fruit.  At  a  given  time  the  gong  rings  and  the  buyers 
assemble  in  the  sales  auditorium.  As  a  winning  bidder  needs  to 
take  only  a  limited  number  of  boxes,  the  representative  of  the 
largest  jobbing  house,  department  store,  grocery  house,  chain 
store,  hotel,  or  large  restaurant  in  town,  who  needs  200  boxes 
of  a  certain  grade  of  fruit,  must  bid  against  a  buyer  who  wants 
but  a  limited  quantity.  With  this  free  working  of  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand  the  price  is  fixed.  Frequently,  personal 
rivalry  among  several  bidders  results  in  the  price  being  raised 
above  what  the  natural  law  of  supply  and  demand  warrants.  Many 
a  buyer  goes  to  the  auction  with  the  idea  of  buying  but  fifty  boxes, 
and  goes  away  the  purchaser  of  one  hundred.  He  sees  what  he 
thinks  he  can  make  money  on  and  buys.  In  the  next  hour  he 
and  all  of  his  farm  are  at  work  trying  to  sell  the  fruit  he  has 
bought. 

In  addition,  every  public  sale  is  a  matter  of  public  record.  The 
catalogue  and  sale  sheet  are  kept  for  a  certain  period  before  their 
destruction  is  permitted.  Some  of  the  auction  Companies  keep 
their  papers  for  years.  The  shipper  can  write  to  the  auction 
company  and  get  a  mailing  catalogue  showing  the  correct  prices. 
In  the  city  of  New  York,  for  example,  the  Daily  Fruit  Reporter, 
an  independent  paper,  publishes  each  day  the  results  of  the  sales, 
car  by  car  and  brand  by  brand.  Anybody  may  sit  in  the  public 
sales  auditorium  and  hear  the  auctioneer  sell  the  fruit  to  the 
highest  bidder  at  a  certain  figure.  He  may  note  on  a  catalogue 
what  his  fruit  sold  for  and  then  compare  that  with  the  account- 
sales  subsequently  rendered  by  the  auction  company.  He  will  find 
that  they  agree  entirely. 

THE   AUCTION    PRICE    STANDS 

No  private  salesman  can  get  from  the  buyer  more  than  the 
market  warrants.  If  a  buyer  overreaches  himself  and  finds  he 


920  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

has  paid  more  than  his  competitor,  he  goes  back  to  the  private 
seller  and  asks  him  to  cut  down  the  price  to  what  his  competitor 
paid.  The  private  seller  does  this  to  hold  his  trade.  The  auc- 
tion price  stands  and  admits  of  no  reduction. 

THE  AUCTIONEER 

The  men  who  do  the  actual  selling  must  he  efficient.  It  takes 
years  for  an  auction  company  to  train  a  man  for  auctioneering. 
The  auctioneer  must  be  a  specialist  in  the  fruit  business. 
His  duties  require  him,  just  previous  to  the  sale,  to  examine  the 
fruit  that  he  is  to  sell  as  to  quality  and  condition,  and  make  a 
notation  on  his  catalogue  so  he  can  secure  the  highest  price  for 
the  different  grades  of  fruit.  .  He  must  also  know  the  quality  and 
condition  of  the  fruit  sold  by  his  competitor.  The  auctioneer 
pays  a  license  fee  and  is  under  bond  to  the  municipality. 

COMBINATION    OF    BUYEIJS    IMPOSSIBLE 

There  are  too  many  racial  differences  and  too  manv  varying 
interests  involved  to  enable  the  buyers  to  form  a  combine  in  the 
market.  There  are  Greeks,  Hebrews,  Irish,  Germans,  Italians 
and  Americans,  both  large  and  small  buyers,  at  every  public 
sale.  The  auction  companies  have  made  combinations  im- 
possible by  forbidding  one  buyer  to  bid  for  any  other  who  is 
present  at  the  sale.  Competition  in  bidding  is  keen  in  this  striv- 
ing in  the  open  public  sale ;  and  the  price  of  fruit  is  forced  up- 
wards to  the  point  at  which  there  is  only  a  small  profit  for  the 
wholesale  merchant.  The  grower  who  sells  at  public  sale  has  yet 
another  check.  His  agent  can  quickly  discover  any  combination 
that  might  be  attempted.  It  is  his  privilege  to  withdraw  the  fruit 
from  public  sale. 

NO  WILD  FLUCTUATIONS  AT  AUCTION 

There  are  no  wild  fluctuations  in  the  prices  at  auction.  The 
fruit  and  the  buyers  are  all  in  one  place  and  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand  is  not  interfered  with.  The  fruit  auctions  are  Held 
regularly  every  day  (Saturday  excepted)  in  the  large  cities,  at  a 
scheduled  time.  The  buyers  who  attend  these  sales  make  n 
regular  business  of  buying  and  selling  fruit.  All  of  them  have 


A  l  CTIOH    HOUSES    AS    DlSTBIBUTOBS    OF    FliUITS 


921 


922  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

an  outlet  through  the  consumer;  they  supply  fruit  to  the  retail 
storekeeper,  the  wagon  peddler,  steamers,  trains,  and  to  dealers 
in  nearby  cities.  All  of  the  buyers  speculate  occasionally,  but 
the  great  bulk  of  their  buying  is  to  supply  a  present  need. 

EXPENSE 

There  are  few  points  connected  with  the  marketing  of  fruit 
that  equal  in  importance  the  matter  of  expense.  It  is,  therefore, 
well  to  remember  that  the  public  sale  system  of  selling  fruit  en- 
ables the  grower  to  get  prompt  returns  from  the  auction  companies 
at  a  low  selling  expense,  and  to  obtain  for  fruit,  prices  which  are 
produced  only  by  active,  competitive  bidding. 

RELIEF   OF  A   GLUTTED   MARKET 

A  public  sale  can  relieve  a  glutted  market  as  no  other  medium 
can.  Just  as  soon  as  the  market  sags,  the  representatives  of  the 
peddlers  and  the  pushcart  men  at  the  public  sale  buy  heavily. 
With  all  the  pushcarts  and  peddlers'  wagons  featuring  a  com- 
modity, many  handling  nothing  else  for  the  time  being,  vast  quan- 
tities of  fruit  can  be  disposed  of  in  case  of  a  glut.  The  result  is 
that  consumption  is  greatly  increased,  the  glut  relieved,  price* 
rebound,  and  the  market  becomes  normal. 

The  public  sale  system  has  a  particular  advantage  over  private 
selling,  in  that,  once  the  glut  is  relieved,  the  stimulated  rate  of 
consumption  sends  prices  upward  at  once.  It  is  quickly  apparent 
that  a  number  of  buyers  want  a  certain  kind  of  fruit.  No  buyer 
can  hide  the  fact.  He  must  bid  briskly  and  high  if  he  is  to  get 
the  fruit  that  his  customers  want. 

THE     AUCTION     SYSTEM     EQUALLY     POTENT     IN     BRINGING     BETTER 
PRICES   TO   THE    GROWER  WHEN    THE   CROP   IS   SHORT 

Apples  are  a  short  crop  this  year.  An  illustration  of  how  an 
auction  sale  of  New  York  State  apples  benefits  the  grower  is  the 
auction  sale  of  barreled  apples  held  in  the  orchards  of  certain 
growers  at  Red  Hook,  Gardiner,  and  Syracuse,  on  September 
1,  2,  and  8  of  this  year,  by  the  company  of  which  the  writer  is 
president,  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  York  State  Department 
of  Foods  and  Markets.  Notwithstanding  a  new  system  was  being 


AICTIOX   HOUSES  AS  DISTRIBUTORS  OF  FRUITS         923 

inaugurated,  and  in  the  face  of  strung  opposition,  the  following 
happened:  It  was  a  matter  of  common,  knowledge  that  previous 
to  the  auction  sales  buyers  were  paying  farmers.  $2.50  per  bar- 
rel for  Grade.  A  fruit,  declining  in  all  cases  to  buy  Grade 
1>  fruit,  and  in  a  very  few  instances  for  some  high-class 
fruit  $2.75  per  barrel  was  paid  for  Grade  A  fruit.  At  the  auction 
sales  the  lowest  price  paid  for  Grade  A  was  $2.70  per  barrel,  and 
the  highest  price  paid  was  $3.40.  In  most  cases  the  price  paid 
was  from  $2.80  to  $3.40  per  barrel  for  Grade  A.  Grade  A  and 
Grade  B  iu  one  orchard  were  sold  together  for  $3.40  per  barrel. 
(Iradc  A  and  Grade  B  apples  together  of  another  orchard  sold 
for  $3.00  per  barrel,  and  Grade  A  and  Grade  B  apples  together 
of  three  other  orchards  were  sold  for  $2.85  per  barrel  and  $2.75 
per  barrel  respectively. 

AUCTION    REALIZES    THE    HIGHEST    MARKET    PRICE    FOR    HIGH-CLASS 
FRUIT   AS    WELL   AS   FOR   INFERIOR   FRUIT 

A  relic  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  on  the  subject  of  public  sale 
as  a  means  of  distribution  is  the  feeling  held  by  some  of  the  less 
well-informed  that  the  auction  might  sacrifice  high-class  fruit. 
Nothing  could  be  farther  from  the  fact.  There-are  present  at 
each  sale  the  fine  fruiterers,  high-class  grocery  houses,  brokers 
representing  high-class  hotels,  restaurants,  and  retail  houses,  and 
jobbers  who  specialize  in  high-grade  fruits  —  all  interested  only 
in  high-class  fruits.  The  result  is  that  these  fruits  are  bid  up  to 
the  highest  price  that  the  market  will  warrant.  In  fact,  prices 
are  realized  at  times  for  high  grades  of  oranges,  grapefruits, 
Spanish  grapes,  lemons,  pears,  California  grapes,  plums,  and 
cherries,  which  are  sold  at  auction,  that  could  be  secured  in  no 
other  way.  Furthermore,  the  auction  is  the  keenest  discriminator 
between  the  fruit  of  the  careful  grower  and  packer,  and  that  of  the 
careless  one.  Every  grower  and  packer  who  uses  intelligence,  time 
and  care  in  the  production  and  packing  of  his  fruit,  wants  these 
elements  recognized.  No  system  equals  the  auction  in  recognizing 
what  is  good  and  in  paying  for  it  accordingly.  The  auction  is 
the  place  above  all  where  each  grower's  effort  stands  on  its  own 
merits. 


924  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XKW  YORK  .STATE 

PUBLIC  SALE  WIDENS  DISTRIBUTION 

A  recent  concrete  example  of  the  way  public  sale  of  fruit  in- 
creases the  number  of  buyers,  and  thereby  widens  distribution, 
is  the  sale  of  bananas  at  public  auction  in  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Baltimore.  The  company  importing  the  largest  amount  of 
bananas  changed  from  private  sale  to  public  sale  in  New  York 
city,  April,  1913,  and  in  Baltimore,  July  1,  1914,  with  the  result 
that  the  number  of  buyers  increased  nearly  tenfold.  Although  it 
has  happened  that  in  a  single  year  in  some  public-sales  cities,  sales 
of  California  deciduous  fruits  have  increased  30  per  cent,  and 
100  per  cent  in  a  period  of  five  years ;  when  California  had  a  heavy 
crop,  the  public  sale  has  been  sufficiently  flexible  to  take  care  of 
and  distribute  the  increased  crop.  Similarly,  sales  of  Florida 
oranges  in  Boston  have,  in  a  period  of  five  years,  at  public  sale, 
increased  350  per  cent. 

Xow  compare  with  the  foregoing  the  consumption  of  noith- 
western  box  apples  in  Boston  under  private  sale:  ' 

Season  Cars 

1911-1912 370 

1912-1913 365 

1913-1914 354 

1914-1915 360 

It  is  evident  that,  although  the  crop  of  northwestern  box  apples 
has  increased  greatly,  private  sale  has  not  been  sufficiently  flexible 
to  widen  distribution. 

SPEED    IN    DELIVERY 

One  great  essential  in  marketing  fruits  and  vegetables  is  prompt- 
ness in  the  delivery  to  the  buyer.  "  The  private  seller's  ability  to 
make  prompt  delivery  is  limited  to  the  number  of  trucks  owned  or 
controlled  by  his  boss  truckman;  but  the  auction  method,  with 
its  immense  volume,  employs  so  many  public  truckmen  for  its 
daily  work  that  it  is  at  all  times  equipped  to  handle  any  quantity. 
For  example,  one  hundred  cars  of  California  fruits  —  in  addition 
to  the  other  lines  of  different  varieties  selling  —  are  sold  and 
delivered  in  a  single  day,  and  have  not  overtaxed  the  capacity 


AUCTION    HOUSES   AS    DISTRIBUTORS   OK    Fur  ITS 

of  the  auctions  in  one  of  our  large  cities.  The  more  prompt 
the  delivery,  the  more  satisfaction  to  the  buyer  ;m<l  the  more  he 
will  pay. 

AUCTION  A  COMING  NECESSITY 

The  volume  of  the  fruit  and  vegetable  business  has  been  growing 
so  fast  that  it  has  become  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growers 
to  adopt  the  public  sale  system  of  selling.  There  is  a  point  at 
which  the  system  of  private  selling  breaks  down,  simply  because 
the  machinery  of  the  system  is  not  adequate.  When  the  pro- 
duction of  a  particular  commodity  is  large,  in  order  to  get  the 
best  results  for  the  grower  there  must  be  a  concentration  at  one 
place  of  both  the  commodity  and  the  buyers.  When  such  concen- 
t ration  is  possible,  there  is  no  question  but  that  the  auction 
system  is  the  most  efficient  method  of  disposing  of  the  product. 
It  will  not  only  increase  distribution,  establish  the  true  market 
value  by  competition  in  bidding,  perform  all  its  operations  in  the 
full  view  of  the  seller  —  and  is  therefore  better  for  the  grower  — 
but  it  saves  the  buyer's  time  (an  important  item  in  modern 
business)  and  helps  the  transportation  company  to  move  its  ton- 
nage speedily. 

The  auction  system  is  adapted  to  the  successful  distribution  of 
all  fruits,  vegetables,  and  farm  produce.  The  call  for  it  is  greater 
today,  because  production  has  increased  so  much  that  a  wider 
distribution  has  become  an  imperative  necessity.  Auction  widens 
distribution  and  secures  the  highest  market  price  for  the  grower, 
and  this  in  his  full  view. 

ONLY    A    FAIR    TRIAL    ASKED    FOR    THE    AUCTION    SYSTEM 

To  give  the  public  sale  system  of  selling  produce  a  fair  trial, 
a  quantity  sufficient  to  attract  the  buyer,  including  high-grade 
fruit,  should  be  supplied  to  the  auctions  regularly.  The  large 
number  of  firms  that  deal  exclusively  in  fruits  sold  at  auction, 
being  assured  of  a  source  of  supply  through  this  method,  would 
welcome  the  opportunity  to  add  other  commodities  to  the  list  of 
those  already  dealt  in.  Buyers  prefer  the  auction  method  of 
handling  fruit  because  the  sales  are  public.  They  then  know 
what  their  rivals  are  paying  for  commodities  and  are  on  an  equal 
footing  with  them.  They  can  economize  time.  They  can  quickly 


926  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

look  over  all  the  fruit  in  the  market,  select  the  sizes  and  grades 
wanted,  and  buy  them  if  they  are  willing  to  pay  the  price. 

Fair  play  is  asked  because  a  square  deal  is  given.  If  only  an 
occasional  car  of  fruit  that  is  far  from  its  prime  is  offered  at 
public  sale,  it  will  have  a  bad  effect  on  the  mind  of  the  buyer 
and  is  not  a  fair  test  of  auction  methods. 

The  public  sale,  as  was  stated  in  the  beginning,  has  been  in 
successful  use  in  Europe  for  one  hundred  years,  and  for  fifty 
years  in  the  United  States.  It  is  coming  into  use  more  and  more ; 
eventually  every  shipper  will  use  it.  The  progressive  man  is 
he  who  grasps  a  good  opportunity  promptly.  To  wait  is  to  lose 
a  business  opportunity  worth  using. 


RECEIPTS  AND   PRICES   OF  APPLES   IN   NEW   YORK 

CITY  AND  EXPORTS   OF  APPLES   FROM 

UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 


II.  B. 

Assistant  Extension  Professor  of  Pomology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Much  attention  is  now  being  given  to  the  marketing  of  farm 
products.  It  is  well  known  that  methods  of  selling  and  distribu- 
tion have  not  kept  pace  with  improvements  in  methods  of  pro- 
duction of  such  products.  In  no  branch  of  the  farming  industry 
is  this  more  true  than  in  the  culture  of  fruit  in  eastern  United 
States.  The  problem  is  more  serious,  perhaps,  to  the  fruit  grower 
than  to  the  grower  of  wheat,  corn,  hay,  etc.,  because  of  the  more 
perishable  nature  of  this  product  and  because  fruit  is  not  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  staples  necessary  to  existence,  and  is  therefore 
subject  to  a  fluctuating  demand  on  the  part  of  the  public. 

The  fact  that  methods  of  marketing  fruit  in  New  York  do  not 
compare  favorably  with  the  methods  pursued  in  Canada  and  the 
Pacific  Northwest  is  no  reflection  on  the  New  York  grower.  He 
was  among  the  first  to  offer  fruit  for  sale  ;  his  maTkets  were  at  his 
doors  and  were  ample  to  care  for  all  that  he  could  produce.  It 
was  natural  that  he  should  devote  his  attention  to  the  growing 
rather  than  to  the  selling  of  his  fruit.  The  industry  in  other 
sections  is  younger.  It  developed  at  a  time  when  markets  must 
be  discovered  and  created  —  there  were  none  waiting  with  open 
arms  to  receive  the  offering  from  these  sections.  It  is  also  natural, 
then,  that  Canada  and  the  West  should  have  placed  special  em- 
phasis upon  the  marketing  side  of  fruit  growing,  for  upon  the 
opening  of  new  channels  for  disposal  of  their  products  depended 
primarily  the  salvation  of  their  industry. 

The  time  has  now  come  when  New  York  must  look  to  these  same 
things  if  she  is  to  maintain  a  position  of  prominence  in  the 
culture  of  deciduous  fruits.  If  her  growers  sell  their  fruit  at 
a  profit  in  the  future,  it  will  not  be  because  the  consumer  must 
have  it,  but  because  it  compares  favorably  in  all  respects  with 
the  product  of  other  sections.  Fruit  must  no  longer  be  picked 

[927] 


928 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


and  sold  blindly — it  must  be  handled  with  intelligence  and  under- 
standing. Fundamental  to  such  an  understanding  is  a  knowledge 
of  markets  and  market  conditions  —  a  broad  conception  of  the 
entire  marketing  scheme  as  it  is,  and  as  it  should  be.  The  fol- 
lowing charts  and  figures  are  designed  to  give  a  general  view  of 
the  nature  and  importance  of  the  Xew  York  apple  market  —  the 
largest  in  the  world. 

The  chart,  Fig.  258,  shows  the  annual  receipts  of  apples  on  the 
Xew  York  wholesale  market  for  the  period  from  1894-95  to 
1903-04  inclusive.  The  reader,  of  course,  understands  that  the 


1894- '95   "95- '06 


•97-'98   '98-'99    '99-1900    'OO-'Ol   '01-' 


'02- '03    '03- '04  Average 


FIG.  258.—  RECEIPTS  OP  APPLES  IN  XEW  YORK  CITY,  FROM  1894-95  TO  1903-04, 
IN  TERMS  OP  100,000  BARRELS 

apple  season  does  not  correspond  with  the  calendar  year;  it  begins 
in  August  and  ends  some  time  during  the  following  July.  These 
figures  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  exports  of  apples;  tluy 
represent  the  apples  actually  consumed  in  Xew  York  City  or  re- 
consigned  to  small  towns  and  cities  within  a  radius  of  perhaps 
forty  or  fifty  miles.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  just  how  extensive 
the  reconsignment  of  apples  is,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  represents 
a  considerable  quantity  of  fruit,  though  a  small  percentage  of  the 
total  receipts.  The  receipts  vary  from  year  to  year  with  the  crop 
in  the  country  at  large.  The  receipts  in  1896  were  1,450,000 
barrels.  This  is  the  year  that  many  growers  have  good  reason 
to  remember.  The  average  for  the  period  was  1,000,000  barrels 
each  year. 


RECEIPTS  AM>  PRICES  OF  APPLES  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY     929 


Fig.  259  shows  the  receipts  from  1904-05  to  1913-14  inclusive. 
There  has  not  been  a  year  throughout  the  entire  period  in  which 
the  receipts  were  not  greater  than  in  1896.  The  year  1912-13 
was  the  most  productive  year  that  the  Xew  York  market  has  ever 
known;  2,490,000  barrels  were  received,  or  about  a  million  more 
barrels  than  in  1896.  The  yearly  average  for  the  entire  period 
was  1,930,000  barrels,  or  an  increase  of  93  per  cent  .over  the 
previous  ten  year-period  —  a  most  astonishing  increase.  Receipts 
during  the  season  of  1914-15  were  1,965,000  barrels. 


1904-05        05-06          06-07 


FIG.  259. —  RECEIPTS  OF  APPLES  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY,  FROM  1904-05  TO  1913-14, 
IN  TERMS  OF  100,000  BARRELS 

Fig.  260  shows  the  percentage  of  the  total  receipts  that  go  on 
the  market  each  month.  Receipts  are  heaviest  in  October  and 
November,  41  per  cent  of  the  entire  season's  receipts  reaching  the 
market  during  these  months  and  corresponding  closely  with  the 
harvesting  period  of  winter  apples. 

Fig.  261  shows  the  monthly  prices  of  a  barrel  of  Baldwin 
apples  for  the  ten-year  period  from  1904-05  to  1913-14  inclusive. 
The  figures  are  computed  on  a  ten-year  basis,  because  the  prices 
for  a  single  year  or  for  a  short  period  would  mean  little  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  variation  from  year  to  year  in  the  production 
juid  supply  of  apples.  The  figures  represent  average  prices,  the 


930 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  XEW  YORK  STATE 


medium  between  the  high  and  low  ranges.  The  actual  figures 
for  the  different  months  are  of  little  importance,  hut  the  increase 
or  decrease  from  one  month  to  another  is  important.  In  general, 


Sept. 


Feb  Mar 


FIG.  260. —  PERCENTAGE  OF  RECEIPTS  OF  APPLES  ix  NEW  YORK  CITY  BY 
MONTHS  —  TEN-YEAR  AVERAGE 

this  chart  affords  an  indication  of  the  advisability  of  holding 
Baldwins  and  what  changes  in  price  may  be  expected  from  month 
to  month  during  the  marketing  season  in  years  of  normal  crops 


3.03 

3.83 

1.98 

3-63 

1.60 

3.37 

1.40 

r  price 

1.14 

ver  Octob 

2.73 

.80 
Gain 

2.49 

.59 

.26 

FIG.  261. —  PRICE    OF    BALDWIN   BY   MONTHS   IN   NEW    YORK    CITY  —  TEN- 
YEAR  AVERAGE 

and  normal  business  conditions.  It  is  not  expected  that  this  chart 
would  necessarily  hold  good  for  any  single  year ;  but  for  a  series 
of  years  it  should  prove  reliable  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Baldwin 


RECEIPTS  AND   PRICKS  OF   Ai  I-LKS   i.\    Xi-:\v    VOIJK   CITY      931 


is  one  of  the  most  dependable  market  varieties  grown  in  this  state. 
The  October  price  is  rather  low  (poor  stock  being  offered  for 
the  most  part)  but  the  price  begins  to  rise  at  once,  and  continues 
to  rise  until  May.  There  is  scarcely  a  month  in  which  the  in- 
crease is  not  sufficient  to  offset  the  increased  cost  of  storage,  and 
the  ]\Iay  price  on  the  average  is  $1.98  higher  than  the  October 
fill-live.  The  ten-year  average  price  of  a  barrel  of  Baldwins  has 
been  $3.18;  in  1914—15  the  average  price  was  $2.48. 

Fig.  262  shows  the  same  tiling  for  Rhode  Island  Greening. 
Greening  is  a  good  storage  variety  when  carefully  handled,  but 
not  so  good  as  Baldwin,  and  in  practice  it  should  not  be  held 
so  long.  The  ten-year  average  for  Greening  has  been  $3.26;  in 
1914-15  it  was  $2.62. 


4.13 

3.69 

1.74 

3.41 

1.30 

r  Price 

3.09 

.90 

Gain  ( 

1.02 
ver  Octobe 

2.81 

70 

.42 

Nov     ,   Dec      Jan       Feb       Mar       Apt        May    Average 

FIG.  262. —  PRICE   OF  RHODE   ISLAND  BY  MONTHS   IN  NEW  YORK   CITY  — 
TEN-YEAR  AVERAGE 

Fig.  263  and  Fig.  264  of  Northern  Spy  and  Tompkins  King 
speak  for  themselves.  Northern  Spy  rightly  handled  is  a  better 
storage  proposition  than  Tompkins  King;  it  is  certainly  better 
after  February.  Northern  Spy  has  brought  $3.51  and  Tompkins 
King  $3.24  as  a  ten-year  average  price.  In  1914-15  the  former 
brought  $3.31;  the  latter  $2.40. 

Fig.  265  shows  the  monthly  prices  of  Ben  Davis.  Ben  Davis 
is  a  poor  storage  proposition  during  the  first  half  of  the  market- 
ing season ;  in  the  last  half  of  it  is  a  good  one  and  continues  to 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  ^SEW  YORK  STATI: 


become  better  the  longer  it  is  held.  This  corresponds  with 
practice  in  handling  this  variety.  Much  has  been  said  concerning 
the  inferior  nature  of  Ben  Davis  —  probably  all  that  has  been  said 


4.08 


2.24 


Oct-  Nov-  Dec-  J»n.  Fct>.  Mar.  Apr  May  June  Average 

FIG.  263. —  PRICE   OF  NORTHERN   £PY  BY  MONTHS  IN  NEW  YORK   CITY  — 

TEN-YEAR  AVERAGE 


3.23 


3.05 


Tept 


3.39 


.56 


3.73 


Jan. 


Feb. 


3.65 


.82 


Mar. 


3.24 


Apr.  Average 

FIG.  264. —  PRICE  OF  TOMPKINS  KING  BY  MONTHS  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY  — 

TEN-YEAR  AVERAGE 

is  true;  but,  rightly  handled,  it  is  not  a  competitor  of  better 
varieties,  and  during  the  last  part  of  the  marketing  season,  when 
other  varieties  are  off  the  market,  it  brings  a  higher  price  than 


RECEIPTS  AND   PRICES  OF  APPLES  i.\    Xi-;\v    YOKK  CITY     933 


it  ever  did.  It  is  difficult  to  convince  a  man  that  he  should  not 
grow  Ben  Davis  when  he  has  the  money  to  show  for  growing  it. 
The  ten-year  average  price  of  this  variety  is  $3.03;  in  1914-15 
it  brought  $2.04. 


Oct. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


eD.  Mar.  Apr.  May  June  Average 

FIG.  265.  —  PRICE    OF    BEN    DAVIS    BY    MONTHS    IN    NEW    YORK    CITY  — 

TEN-YEAR  AVERAGE 


71 

71 

~~~ 

48 

47               A«, 

^V^-H^  •       o 

*•*    T.        36 
20 

N.    Y, 

FIG.  266. —  "  FROM  WHAT  STATES  Do  You  DRAW  YOUR  APPLES?  "    REPLIES  OF 

250  PRODUCE  MEN 

Figures  have  also  been  worked  out  for  the  fall  varieties,  such 
as  Alexander,  Twenty  Ounce,  Fall  Pippin,  Mclntosh,  etc.  Almost 
without  exception  these  figures  indicate  that  the  time  to  move 
these  varieties  is  when  they  are  picked  —  that  they  are  not  likely 
to  pay  for  storage. 


934:  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Some  interesting  information  is  displayed  in  Fig.  266.  In 
1914-15  a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  one  thousand  produce  men 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  Among  the  questions  asked 
was  this :  "  From  what  state  or  states  do  you  draw  your  apples 
to  supply  your  trade"?  Eeplies  from  250  of  these  men  were 
received  in  such  form  that  they  could  be  used  and  are  incorporated 
in  this  chart.  Some  of  the  men  gave  a  list  of  several  states  from 
which  their  apples  came.  Xew  York  was  mentioned  as  one 
source  of  supply  by  14-7 ;  Virginia  and  Washington  were  second 
in  popularity  with  71  each.  A  considerable  number  of  merchants 
stated  that  they  would  prefer  to  secure  their  apples  from  Xew 
York  if  they  could  depend  on  the  pack.  Apparently  there  is  no 
prejudice  against  Xew  York  apples  as  such  in  home  markets. 

EXPORTS   OF  APPLES 

The  ports  of  this  country  from  which  apples  are  exported  in 
commercial  quantities  are,  New  York,  Boston  and  Portland,  Me. 
Some  Canadian  apples  are  sent  from  Portland  when  the  northern 
harbor  becomes  ice  bound. 

Fig.  267  shows  the  total  amount  of  apples  sent  from  these 
ports  each  year  from  1905-06  to  1914—15  inclusive.  Our  ex- 
ports vary  with  the  size  of  our  crop  and  with  the  size 
of  the  Canadian  crop.  Less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  United 
States  crop  is  exported,  as  a  rule,  while  a  very  large  part 
of  the  Canadian  crop  is  sold  abroad.  Canadian  apples  are  pre- 
ferred in  European  markets,  due  to  more  complete  standardization 
of  the  pack  and  better  methods  of  packing.  Our  largest  export 
year  was  in  1912-13,  when  1,940,000  barrels  left  this  country. 
The  average  for  the  period  is  1,423,000  barrels.  There  was  much 
talk  in  the  fall  of  1914-15  that  apple  prices  must  be  low  because 
there  would  be  no  export  trade.  Apple  prices  were  low,  but  we 
exported  more  apples  than  usual  —  more  than  in  any  other  year 
except  1912-13.  This  was  because  few  of  our  apples  go  to  Con- 
tinental Europe.  England  takes  practically  all  of  them,  and  that 
class  of  English  who  purchase  American  apples  seemed  to  have 
the  money  and  the  disposition  to  purchase  them  as  in  other  years. 
Apple  prices  were  low  because  of  an  unusually  large  crop,  poor 
business  conditions  and  uncertainty  as  to  what  the  future  might 


RKCEIPTS  AND   PIIICES  OF  APPLES  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY     935 

bring  forth,  inability  to  obtain  credit  and  disinclination  to  take 
dinners,  and  because  the  dried  apple  markets  were  seriously 
affected. 


16.5 

14.4 

8.2 

10.6 

16.2 

12  .3 

12.8 

17.5 

Oi-06          06-07            07-08              08-09            09-10             10-11             11-12            12-13            13-14             14-15 

FIG.  267.  —  EXPORTS  FROM  UNITED  STATES  IN  TERMS  OF  100,000  BARRELS. 

AVERAGE  FOR  PERIOD,   1,423,000  BARRELS 


11.3 

12.7 

3.8 

11.5 

9.9 

9.1 

6.4 

7.8 

1905-06          06-07            07-08            08-09            09-10 

19--1  1 

FIG.  268. —  EXPORTS  FROM  CANADA  IN  TERMS  OF  100,000  BARRELS.  AVERAGE 
FOR  PERIOD,  908,900  BARRELS 

Fig.  268  shows  Canadian  exports  for  the  same  period ;  the  ten- 
year  average  is  908,900  barrels.  The  Canadian  industry  is  smaller 
and  younger  than  our  own,  but  is  much  better  developed  in  regard 
to  methods  of  packing  and  distribution. 


930 


THE  FRUIT  LxnrsTUY  ix  XKW  YORK  STATE 


Fig.  269  shows  the  more  important  importing  cities  of  Europe 
and  average  annual  imports  of  each.  Liverpool,  England,  takes 
nearly  a  million  barrels  each  year;  London,  England,  takes  650,- 
000  barrels;  Glasgow,  Scotland,  takes  450,000;  Hungary,  Ger- 
many, takes  170,000  (the  figures  for  Hamburg  are  computed  on  a 
nine-year  basis ;  no  apples  reached  Llamburg  from  this  country  in 
1914-15).  All  other  cities  combined  take  240,000  barrels. 
9.9 


Liverpool  London 


6.5 


4.5 


Glasgow 


2.4 


1.7 


Hamburg 


All  other* 


FIG.  269. —  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  IMPORTS  FROM  1905-6  TO  1914-15  IN  TERMS 

OF  100,000  BARRELS 

From  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  exercised  control  of  the  seas,  it 
can  be  seen  why  our  exports  were  not  materially  affected  in 
1914-15. 

The  most  popular  varieties  for  export  are  Baldwin,  Yellow 
Newtown,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Ben  Davis,  York  Imperial,  and 
Tompkins  King.  Russet,  AVinesap,  and  Northern  Spy  are  also 
exported. 


THE  EVAPORATED  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK 

STATE 

K.  \V.  CATCH  POLK,  Xoirni   ROSE,  WAYNE  COUNTY,  N.  '\ . 

The  evaporated  fruit  industry  of  the 
present  day  is  the  result  of  a  gradual  and 
normal  growth,  influenced  by  horticul- 
tural and  economic  conditions  both  in  this 
country  and  in  foreign  countries.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Tenth  Census  of  the 
United  States,  the  total  production  of 
evaporated  apples  in  1909  was  44,568,- 
244  pounds  with  a  valuation  of  $3,098,- 
095 — this  representing  a  four-fold  in- 
crease in  ten  years.  About  75  per  cent  of  this  product  is  made 
in  New  York  State,  four  or  five  counties  producing  half  this 
amount  while  the  bulk  of  the  industry  is  centered  in  Wayne 
County  which  had  2,200  evaporators  in  1894. 


EVOLUTION    OF    THE    INDUSTRY— 

Probably  a  few  middle-aged  men  of  today  can  recall  the 
quarters  of  apples,  with  skin  and  core  removed,  that  used  to  be 
strung  up  to  dry  over  the  kitchen  stove.  Then  as  fruit  became 
more  plentiful  and  both  demand  and  price  increased,  this  industry 
was  transferred  to  the  open;  the  quartered  apples,  properly  pre- 
pared by  paring,  trimming,  and  coring,  were  spread  to  dry  on 
boards  about  twelve  inches  wide  and  twelve  feet  long,  which  could 
be  tiered  or  stacked  up  before  a  rain. 

The  next  step  in  advance  was  the  adoption  of  several  forms 
of  portable  dryers.  Then,  as  the  large  commercial  plantings  of 
apples  came  into  bearing  and  prices  of  barreled  apples  ruled  low 
with  little  demand  for  bulk  goods,  the  tower  and  box  commercial 
types  of  evaporator  came  into  use.  With  large  increase  in  avail- 
able raw  material,  increased  demand  from  Germany,  and  the 
strong  German  prejudice  against  the  products  made  on  metal 
racks  wire-coated  with  zinc,  the  type  of  construction  rapidly 

[937] 


938 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


EVAPORATED   FKTIT   I.MMSTKY  i.\   XKW   YOKK  STATE 


tiinic(l  to  that  of  the  hop  kiln,  and  this  practically  holds  the  field 
today. 

The  earlier  types  of  evaporator  were  situated  on  the  farms, 
each  having  its  own  plant;  but  with  the  advent  of  larger  types,  the 
tendency  to  change  to  producing  centers  gradually  increased.  As 
a  result,  a  few  large  capacity  plants  were  built  on  the  farms, 
but  the  labor  problem,  shipping  facilities,  and  fuel  supply  favored 
locations  in  a  village1,  and  preferably  a  village  near  a  railway,  the 
latter  plan  appealing  especially  to  the  business  man,  who  at  this 
period  came  into  the  game  and  who  as  a  rule  was  able  to  make  a 
comfortable  living,  as  he  prolonged  the  evaporating  season  to 
three  months. 


IK;.  271. —  ORCHARD  OF  E.  W.  CATCHPOLE  &  SONS,  NORTH  ROSE,  N.  Y. 
BEN  DAVIS  APPLES,  TWENTY-THREE  YEARS  PLANTED.  DISTANCE  35  FEET 
BY  35  FEET;  28  TREES  IN  Row 


APPLES    SUITABLE    FOR    EVAPORATION 

In  earlier  times  the  utilization  of  waste  products  was  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  evaporated  apple  industry  in  order  to  save  a 
portion  of  the  crop  in  years  of  overproduction  and  low  prices.  As 
demand  for  high-grade  products  increased,  however,  with  the  rul- 
ing prices  of  picked  apples  in  barrels  and  bulk  lower,  it  was  found 


940  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  Xi:w  YORK  STATE 

profitable  in  the  average  year  to  evaporate  a  better  quality  of 
apples  and  thus  meet  the  demand  of  the  trade  for  a  high-grade 
product. 

When  apple  crops  are  short  and  the  resulting  prices  are  high, 
only  the  lower  grades  can  economically  be  used  for  evaporation. 

The  present  season  of  1915  ends  with  an  unusual  condition, 
for,  owing  to  scarcity,  the  price  of  cider  apples  has  advanced,  and 
very  large  proportions  of  medium-grade  apples  and  even  wind- 
falls have  been  barreled,  a  large  shortage  for  the  purpose  of  evap- 
oration being  thus  created. 

PROCESS    OF   EVAPORATION 

The  process  of  evaporation  consists  in  reducing  the  moisture 
content  of  the  fruit  by  heating  to  a  point  where  it  will  neither 
decay  nor  become  sour,  and  will  still  retain  its  flavor  and  all  fruit 
juices  possible,  27  per  cent  being  the  legal  state  requirement. 
In  the  early  stages  a  high  temperature  is  desired  in  order  to  scar 
over  the  surface  and  so  aid  in  retaining  flavor  and  juices.  After- 
ward the  temperature  is  gradually  lowered  so  as  to  reduce  the 
moisture  content  to  the  desired  amount. 

The  products  of  primitive  methods  are  called  "  sun  dried/'  or 
"  dried,"  apples  and  are  small  in  volume  in  this  state ;  the  com- 
mercial products  are  named  from  the  practice,  u  evaporated 
apples." 

EARLY  HISTORY  OF  EVAPORATING  APPLIANCES 

The  first  of  the  appliance  used  was  the  cook  stove  attachment, 
consisting  merely  of  a  small  galvanized  iron  box  with  trays  for 
holding  the  fruit.  It  was  used  to  a  limited  extent  and  only  for 
a  short  time. 

The  second  appliance  on  the  market  was  the  Topping  portable 
evaporator.  This  patent  was  purchased  by  Mason  L.  Rogers,  of 
Williamson,  who  built  the  first  drier,  made  several  changes,  and 
finally  sold  it  to  Mr.  Charles  Topping,  of  Marion,  who  continued 
the  manufacture  to  considerable  extent.  The  evaporator  was  rec- 
tangular in  form  and  was  made  almost  entirely  of  wood.  The  racks 
were  inserted  from  the  sides,  it  had  a  furnace  running  lengthwise 
of  the  bottom  under  the  racks  and  a  ventilator  extending  the  entire 
length  of  the  roof-shaped  top.  Wood  was  largely  used  for  fuel. 


EVAPORATED    FRUIT    INDUSTRY    IX    -\EW    YoRK    STATE        1)41 


942  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


The  size  was  2i/>x3  feet  or  21/^x31/£  feet,  but  this  was  later 
increased  to  produce  twelve  bushels  per  day  of  fifteen  hours. 

The  Zimmerman  patent  came  next.  This  differed  from  the 
Topping  in  being  made  entirely  of  metal.  Its  general  principle 
was  similar  to  that  of  the  Topping,  however,  with  the  addition 
of  a  heat  spreader  to  force  hot  air  over  the  racks;  its  size  was 
about  3x3%  feet. 

MIDDLE  PERIOD  TYPES 

The  tower  drier  of  the  middle  period  consisted  of  an  enormous 
brick  chimney,  usually  entirely  inside  the  building,  extending 
from  the  cellar  up  through  the  two  stories  and  roof  and  tapering 
after  leaving  the  roof.  The  walls  of  the  chimney  were  four  inches 


FIG.  273. —  LARGE  KILN  PLANT  AT  SAXHORN,  ONTARIO  COUNTY,  X.  Y. 

in  thickness,  and  there  was  an  inside  opening  a  trifle  over  four 
feet  square.  Wooden  racks  were  used  in  this  type  of  drier,  the 
slats  being  of  wood  in  some  cases  and  of  wire  in  others.  Under 
one  patent  the  width  of  the  racks  was  about  half  that  of  the  tower 
itself,  so  that  the  racks,  attached  to  an  endless  chain  of  brackets, 
went  up  on  one  side  and  came  down  on  the  other,  the  fruit  being 
removed  on  the  side  opposite  that  of  its  introduction.  Under  the 
other  patent  the  racks  were  square,  nearly  the  size  of  the  inside 
of  the  tower,  and  were  introduced  into  the  tower  on  the  first  floor 
above  the  fire  at  a  high  heat  (about  175  degrees).  This  entire 


EVAPORATED  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE     943 


944 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


mass  of  racks  was  raised,  at  regular  intervals,  by  either  a  lever  or 
a  chain  and  sprocket  arrangement.  On  arriving  at  the  upper 
story  the  apples  were  dried,  and  there  the  racks  were  taken  out. 
The  capacity  of  each  tower  was  approximately  one  hundred  bushels 
per  day.  In  1876,  Mason  L.  Rogers,  who  owned  the  first  drier, 
built  a  tower  evaporator  on  the  Rogers  homestead  now  owned  by 
Willis  P.  Rogers,  of  Williamson. 

The  box  drier  consisted  of  a  wooden  box,,  4  feet  wide,  1  feet 
high,  and  from  16  to  20  feet  long  on  the  inside,  which  usually 
stood  on  the  first  floor  of  the  evaporating  plant  with  one  end  over 


FIG.  275. —  FOUR-KILN  PLANT.    WORKROOM  ATTACHED  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES 

the  furnace.  Two  pipes  extended  the  whole  length  of  the  box 
underneath  the  racks  and  at  least  three  feet  below  them.  At  the 
end  of  the  box  they  turned,  were  led  back,  and  disappeared  into 
the  chimney  at  the  middle  of  one  side.  These  racks  were  sup- 
ported by  cleats  running  the  entire  length  of  the  box  on  the  inside, 
in  rows  which  were  about  six  inches  apart  and  which  were  called 
"runs."  After  being  spread  with  the  green  fruit,  these  racks, 
which  were  made  of  a  wooden  frame  and  quarter-inch  wire  mesh, 
were  introduced  at  the  lower  end  of  the  box  directly  over  the 
furnace  in  order  to  sear  the  fruit  with  a  strong  heat.  At  regular 
intervals  additional  racks  were  introduced  by  those  in  charge,  the 
operator  at  the  farther  end  from  the  furnace  taking  out  a  rack 
and  inserting  it  in  the  run  above  and  thus  making  room  for 


KATKn  Fur  IT  INDUSTRY  jx  NEW  VOK-K  STATE 


946  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  KEW  YORK  STATE 

the  introduction  of  another  rack  over  the  furnace.  By  means  of 
this  process  the  racks  sent  forward  on  the  lower  run  returned  on 
the  one  above  it,  and  the  operation  was  continued  until  the  upper 
runs  of  the  box  were  reached,  where  the  temperature  was  much, 
lower.  By  this  time  the  fruit  was  properly  dried. 

The  steam  type  of  evaporator  differs  from  the  box  in  that  the 
source  of  heat  is  centered  in  coils  of  steam  pipes  between  every 
second  row  of  racks,  making  it  necessary  to  have  additional  space 
between  the  pipes  and  racks  immediately  above  so  as  to  prevent 
the  fruit  from  being  burned  directly  over  the  steam  coils.  The 
advantages  of  steam  are:  A  better  quality  of  fruit  product  and 
a  saving  in  cost  of  fuel,  since  a  cheaper  grade  of  coal  may  be 
used.  It  is  disadvantageous  in  that  more  labor  is  required  in 
operation,  and,  besides  the  high  initial  cost  of  the  pipes,  renewal 
is  necessary  every  two  years.  Four  thousand  feet  of  one-inch 
steam  pipe  represents  capacity  for  three  hundred  bushels  per  day. 

LATER   PERIOD   TYPES 

First,  the  hop  kiln.  The  hop  kiln  requires  a  building  with  a 
fairly  steep  roof,  usually  constructed  with  16-foot  standing,  and 
square  or  nearly  so,  the  popular  sizes  being  18x18  and  20  x  20 
feet.  A  very  large  furnace  with  generous  heating  capacity  is 
placed' in  the  center  of  the  building,  and  at  the  roof  point  a  good- 
sized  ventilator  is  located  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  steam  and 
moisture  to  escape,  the  openings  being  fitted  with  doors  that  may 
be  regulated  by  ropes  and  pulleys  in  order  to  control  the  steam 
escape  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

In  the  standard  two-kiln  type,  the  kilns  are  20  x  20  feet  and  a 
two-story  workroom  is  attached  the  entire  length  of  one  side. 
Paring  machines  and  conveyors  are  on  the  first  floor  from  which 
the  apples  are  elevated  to  the  second  floor  into  the  bleacher.  From 
there  they  pass  the  slicer  and  thence  by  conveyors  (in  the  case  of 
a  power  plant)  into  the  kilns. 

The  kiln  floors  are  constructed  of  strips  of  either  maple  or 
basswood,  one  inch  wide  on  top,  seven-eights  inch  thick,  and  one- 
half  inch  wide  on  the  under  side,  and  laid  with  a  quarter-inch 
opening  at  the  upper  edges ;  the  wider  space  at  the  bottom  prevents 
the  lodging  of  small  particles  of  the  dried  fruit.  These  floors  are 


FKIIT   1. \nrsTRY   IN    X  i-;\v   YORK  STATE 


917 


THE  FRF  IT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW   YORK  STATE 


oiled  before  using  and  at  regular  intervals  during  the  evaporating 
season  in  order  to  prevent  the  fruit  from  clinging  to  them.  These 
openings  allow  the  heat  to  pass  up  through  the  fruit  from  the 
furnace  room  below.  Openings  are  also  included  in  the  furnace 
room  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  and  controlling  the  cold  air 
so  as  to  maintain  the  desired  temperature  in  the  kiln. 


FIG.  278. —  TRIUMPH  POWER  PARER,  MANUFACTURED  BY  THE  BOUTELL  MFG.  Co., 

ROC-HESTER,  N.  Y 

The  usual  method  of  piping  is  attained  by  the  extension  of 
two  parallel  rows  of  pipes  from  two  openings  in  the  top  of  the 
furnace  to  a  point  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  outside  wall,  where 
the  pipes  turn  at  right  angles  in  opposite  directions,  are  led  around 
and  enter  the  chimney  at  the  side  opposite  the  furnace.  In  later 
years  several  plans  of  double  piping  have  been  used  successfully, 
resulting  in  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  heat  and  economy 
in  fuel. 

MACHINERY    AND    APPLIANCES 

Apple  Graders 

The  cheaper  and  smaller  types  of  apple  graders  used  in  packing 
apples  are  also  used  for  removing  small  apples  from  the  raw 


EVAI'OUATKI)     FlUTT     INDUSTRY     IN     NEW     Y()KK     S'l'ATK        1)41) 

material  before  it  is  sent  to  the  paring  machine.     The  apples  under 
two  inches  in  diameter  are  used  either  for  chops  or  for  cider. 

Paring  Machine 

The  automatic  hand-paring  machine  that  performs  the  oper- 
ations of  paring,  coring,  and  slicing,  is  still  used  in  many  farm 
plants  and  in  a  few  of  the  commercial  ones,  hnt  is  to  a  very  large 
<  \t<  ni  he  ing  superseded  in  the  plants  operated  by  business  men. 
by  power-paring  machines,  and  in  some  cases  by  automatic  self- 
feeders. 


FIG.  279. —  SI.K  i  it    MANUFACTURED   BY  THE  BOUTELL  MFG.  Co., 
ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 

Bleachers 

In  the  large  power  plant,  the  operation  of  bleaching  is  usually 
accomplished  on  an  endless  belt  as  it  passes  through  the  bleaching 
box.  This  box  is  approximately  three  feet  square  in  cross  section 
and  of  sufficient  length  to  give  capacity  for  the  completion  of  the 
process  as  the  fruit  passes  through. 


950  THE  FRUIT  IxnrsTirv  i.\  XKW  YORK  STATE 

When  the  other  type  of  bleacher  is  used  the  sliced  apples,  con- 
tained in  bushel  boxes  with  slatted  bottoms,  are  passed  over  the 
rollers  in  the  bottom  of  the  bleacher  box,  being  advanced  at  regular 
intervals  until  the  process  of  bleaching  is  completed  after  the 
length  of  the  box  has  been  traversed. 

In  both  of  these  types,  the  sulphur  burner  that  generates  the 
sulphur  for  their  process  is  located  at  the  end  where  the  fruit  is 
introduced. 


FIG.  280. —  RINGS    OF    FANCY    EVAPORATED    APPLES 

Furnace 

It  is  necessary  to  have  a  furnace  of  generous  capacity,  with  a 
very  large  fire  box  especially  manufactured  for  this  purpose. 

The   open   furnace  with   heat  deflector  overhead,    which 
employed  to  considerable  extent  a  few  years  ago,  is  but  little  us 


EVAI'ORATKI)    FlMIT     L\IHSTKY    IN     Nl-:\V    YoKK    STATE  951 

at  the  present  time.  One  object  inn  to  this  type  of  furnace  is  that 
the  dust  created  makes  it  impossible  to  produce  the  higher  grades 
of  fruit. 

Racks 

The  prejudice  of  the  German  people  against  fruit  dried  on'zinc, 
or  /inc-coatcd,  nicks  was  overcome  for  a  time  by  the  use  of  racks 
with  wooden  bottoms,  especially  in  the  tower  type  evaporator. 
This  objection  is  now  avoided  by  using  the  kiln  type  evaporator, 
with  floors  of  wood. 

Fuel 

Wood,  hard  coal,  soft  coal,  coke,  and  natural  gas  are  used  for 
fuel.  The  sulphur  fumes  from  the  coal  arc  an  aid  to  the  bleaching 
process.  In  kiln  evaporators  the  combination  of  coal  and  coke 
gives  the  best  results. 

MARKETS 
Domestic 

In  the  early  seventies,  W.  T.  Gay  lord,  sr.,  sent  a  load  of  dried 
apples  to  Jefferson  County  by  team  and  exchanged  it  for  a  load 
of  cheese.  This  is  the  lirst  known  commercial  transaction  in 
dried  fruit  in  New  York. 

hi  the  early  days  the  domestic  market  east  of  tfre  Mississippi 
river  gradually  increased  in  volume  and  territory,  extending  to 
the  south,  south-west,  and  north-west.  During  the  past  few  years, 
however,  California  has  taken  over  the  north-west  trade,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  her  product  contains  less  moisture  and  hence  has  a 
better  keeping  quality,  although  it  is  at  the  same  time  handicapped 
by  lack  of  flavor. 

Canning  has  hurt  the  domestic  market  but  not  the  export  busi- 
ness. Canned  apples  are  not  desirable  for  pie  bakers,  owing  to 
tlnir  lack  of  flavor;  30  per  cent  of  pie-bakers'  requirements  of 
fruits  and  berries  are  carried  in  the  frozen  state. 

Export 

Early  in  the  seventies,  David  Wing  &  Brothers  worked  up  an 
export  trade  and  opened  branches  at  both  Clyde  and  Wolcott, 
Wayne  County,  New  York.  It  was  not  until  1890,  however,  that 
the  export  market  was  inaugurated  by  a  few  Chicago  firms, 


952 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


although  within  a  few  years  it  came  into  the  hands  of  New  York 
City  dealers.  Next  came  the  advent  of  the  brokers  in  cities,  and 
from  1907  to  1910  the  volume  of  business  largely  shifted  from 
the  cities  to  Rochester,  New  York,  where  a  system  of  trading  be- 
tween local  dealers  was  initiated  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  one 
or  two  brokers.  The  crop  is  now  sold  five  to  eight  times  over  in 
a  speculative  way,  owing  to  the  ease  of  obtaining  reliable  informa- 
tion on  probable  crop  conditions  as  early  as  January  in  any  given 
year. 


FIG.  281. —  FACED  END  OF  Box  OF  FANCY  EVAPO- 
RATED APPLES. 

We  have  a  small  business  with  South  America  and  South  Africa 
but  the  large  bulk  of  our  export  business  is  with  Germany.     One 
German  importer  alone  increased  the  volume  of  his  business  from 
thirty  to  forty  cars  in  1893  and  to  two  hundred  cars  in  1905,  and 


KVAPOKATEI)    Fh'l   IT     IMHSTKY     IX     \  K  W     YoKK    STATE  953 

says:  "  I  believe  my  competitors  were  able  to  increase  their  busi- 
ness in  the  same  way."  By  following  an  educational  campaign  in 
( in-many,  candy  and  jelly  makers  were  persuaded  to  substitute 
high-grade  evaporated  apples  for  fresh  apples,  with  the  result  that 
consumption  increased  until  the  quality  of  the  product  was 
lowered  as  a  result  of  speculation  in  our  American  markets. 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 

Nay,  you  shall  see  mine  orchard:  where,  in  an  arbour,  we  will  eat  a  last 

year's  pippin  of  my  own  grafting 

SHAKESPEARE'S  HENRY  IV. 

[955] 


GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING 

DR.  GEORGE  G.  ATWOOD 

Chief,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  State  Department  of   Agriculture,  Albany, 

X.  V. 

The  practice  of  grafting  is  one  of  ancient  origin,  but  the  main 
purpose  to  which  it  is  applied  is  not  materially  different  today  from 
that  of  early  times.  The  chief  object  is  to  change  seedlings  or 
useless  stocks  of  trees  to  desirable  or  more  valuable  varieties. 

Very  few  seedling  or  natural  trees  produce  valuable  fruit,  but 
they  can  be  used  for  unlimited  propagation  of  choice  varieties. 
The  scion  holds  within  its  buds  the  potential  character  of  the  new 
top  in  variety  of  fruit,  foliage,  and  hardiness.  Even  a  scion  of 
u  sweet  fruit  grafted  011  a  stock  always  sour  will  bear  fruit  the 
same  as  the  scion  used. 

TOP  GRAFTING 

Top  grafting,  as  distinguished  from  root  or  crown  grafting, 
refers  to  the  practice  of  working  over  bearing  trees  for  the  pur- 
pose of  changing  variety,  increasing  production,  and  hastening 
bearing  age. 

•  Top  grafting  is  done  only  in  the  early  spring.  The  scions  to  be 
used  should  be  cut,  selected,  and  carefully  stored  before  the 
extreme  cold  of  winter.  Scions  of  the  preceding  summer's  growth 
are  used.  Choose  only  mature,  well-ripened  wood  about  %  to  % 
inch  in  diameter,  with  prominent  buds.  Tie  loosely  in  small 
In  indies  with  cord,  and  pack  in  old  sawdust  and  sand.  Scions 
must  be  kept  just  moist  enough  to  prevent  shriveling,  and  should 
be  kept  cool  in  order  to  delay  starting  or  swelling  of  the  buds. 

Very  old  or  waning  trees  are  usually  not  valuable  for  top-work- 
ing. Only  vigorous  or  healthy  trees  should  be  operated  upon, 
though  large  trees,  if  sound,  may  be  changed  over  in  two  or  three 
years  by  grafting  a  part  of  the  top  each  year,  but  this  is  primarily 
a  pruning  problem  and  not  essentially  a  grafting  one.  In  top 
grafting  the  splice  or  tongue  graft  (Fig.  282)  is  used  when 
the  stock  and  scion  are  nearly  the  same  size;  but  when  the 
stuck  is  considerably  larger  than  the  scion,  then  the  cleft  or  wedge 
plan  (Fig.  283)  should  be  adopted.  In  the  latter,  the  stock  is 

[957] 


958 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  NEW  \~OEK  STATE 


AM)    Ul'DDINO 


first  cut  in  the  healthy  portion  of  the  branch,  the  future  shape  of 
the  top  being  kept  in  mind,  as  in  pruning.  The  cut  should  be 
made  with  a  hue-tooth  saw  and  the  bark  kept  free  from  injury. 
The  stock  is  split  downward;  a  wedge  may  he  used  to  hold  the 
cleft  open  until  the  scion  is  placed  in  position.  Tare  should  be 
exercised  that  the  outer  bark  of  the  stock  and  the  scion  coine 
together,  as  shown  in  Fig.  283  (d). 

The  scion  should  be  from  3  to  5  buds  long  and  should  be  cut 
wedge-shaped  (Fig.  283  [c]),  with  one  edge  slightly  thicker  than 
the  other.  The  object  is  to  have  the  pressure  of  the  cleft,  after  the 
wedge  is  removed,  greatest  upon  the  outer  side  (Fig.  283  [d]  ) 
where  the  growing  union  is  to  bo  effected. 

If  the  stock  is  large,  say  2  inches  in  diameter,  two  scions  may 
be  placed  in  the  cleft  opposite  each  other.  When  the  wedge  is 
removed,  if  the  scions  are  not  held  firmly,  the  stock  should  be  tied 
with  cord  or  tapes  before  waxing.  Wax  may  be  applied  in  liquid 
form,  or  as  plastic  wax  (Fig.  283  [e]  )  ;  or  waxed  tape  may  be 
used  in  splice  and  tongue  grafting,  thus  uniting  the  strength  of  a 
cord  to  the  covering  process. 

Every  cut  or  opening,  including  the  upper  end  of  the  scion, 
must  be  carefully  covered  with  wax  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to 
insure  growth.  "  All  joints  must  be  kept  air  tight.  Extreme  heat 
or  cold  may  cause  the  wax  to  shrink.  It  is  therefore  well  to  look 
over  the  work  occasionally. 

ROOT   OK  CROWN  GRAFTING 

I  ti  ml.  <))•  crown  grafting  is  very  generally  used  by  nurserymen. 
One-  or  two-year  seedlings  are  stored  in  cellars  for  grafting  in  the 
winter.  The  splice  or  tongue  method  is  used. 

Apples  are  grafted  at  the  collar  or  crown,  or  on  pieces  of  the 
root.  The  root  may  be  from  3  to  6  inches  and  the  scion  from 
_  to  1  inches,  but  the  completed  graft  should  be  not  over  8  or  9 
indies.  The  union  is  made  firm  by  'tying  with  string  or  waxed 
cloth  and  applying  liquid  wax.  Grafts  are  then  packed  in  sand  or 
sawdust  and  kept  moderately  moist  in  a^cool  cellar,  ready  for  dib- 
bling in  the  'early  spring.  Apples  may  be  grafted  on  whole  or 
piece  roots  ;  pears  only  at  the  collar  on  whole  roots. 


960 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix   XKW  YORK  STATE 


M;     AM)     Hi   DDIXG  961 


(.KAKTI  \(i 

Bridge  grafting  is  a  modified  form  of  cleft  grafting  and  is 
often  used  to  repair  damage  to  trunks  of  trees  when  the  bark  has 
been  injured  or  removed  by  rabbits  or  mice.  The  process  may  be 
I'sed  for  inarching  to  supply  added  strength  to  branches,  to  bridge 
over  wounds  caused  by  broken  limbs,  or  where  blights  and  cankers 
have  been  cut  out. 

Before  bridging,  the  exposed  wood  should  be  painted  with  thick 
linseed  oil  paint.  Scions  previously  collected  should  be  inserted 
as  shown  in  Fig  284  (b)  and  (c),  and  they  should  be  carefully 
waxed  as  in  cleft  grafting. 

GRAFTING    WAX 

For  outdoor  or  top  grafting  a  grafting  wax  made  of  the  fol- 
lowing is  recommended:  4  pounds  resin,  1  pound  beeswax,  1  pint 
linseed  oil.  The  wax  should  be  melted.  If  to  be  used  in  plastic 
form,  small  portions  of  the  hot  w>ax  must  be  poured  into  a  bucket 
or  pulled  into  pliable  strips.  If,  however,  the  wax  is  to  be  applied 
hot  with  a  brush,  it  may  be  heated  in  the  field  with  hot  water  or 
over  a  portable  heater,  such  as  an  oil  stove. 

Waxed  tape  or  string  are  prepared  by  dropping  small  balls  of 
either  into  hot  wax  and  leaving  for  a  few  moments. 

Grafting  wax  for  indoor  work  may  be  made  as  follows:  6 
pounds  resin,  1  pound  beeswax,  1  pound  mutton  tallow  or  1  pint 
linseed  oil.  When  heated  to  a  temperature  of  175  degrees  F. 
apply  with  a  brush. 

BUDDING 

AYhile  grafting  is  usually  done  in  the  dormant  or  early  spring 
season  with  the  use  of  only  dormant  scions,  budding  is  ordinarily 
done  in  the  summer  or  fall  when  the  stock  and  bud  sticks  are  in 
growing  condition. 

The  exact  time  to  bud  is  when  the  stock  will  peel  ;  that  is,  when 
the  bark  can  be  carefully  lifted,  and  when  bud  sticks  of  the  cur- 
rent season's  growth  of  proper  maturity  can  be  secured.  Bud 
sticks  are  selected  and  the  leaves  are  'at  once  cut  as  shown  in 
Fig.  285  (b).  The  way  to  cut  the  bud  is  shown  in  Fig.  285  at  (c). 
A  cross  cut  is  made  just  through  the  back  of  the  stock  and  then 
a  down  cut  is  made.  The  points  or  corners  are  carefully  raised 


962  THE  FEI:IT  INDUSTRY   rx  XEW  YORK   STATE 


GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING  963 

and  the  bud  inserted  between  the  wood  and  inner  bark  (Fig. 
L)S.">  |dj).  Tie  carefully  ;is  shown  in  Fig.  _?<S5  (e),  being  sure  to 
have  all  unions  nnsrratched  and  tight.  Xo  wax  is  used. 

In  two  or  three  weeks  the  union  will  be  perfected  and  the  tie 
of  raffia  or  string  must  be  removed  to  prevent  girdling.  The  buds 
thus  inserted  remain  dormant  until  spring.  Before  growth 
begins,  the  stock  or  upper  portion  must  be  cut  off  about  one  inch 
above,  and  all  growths  other  than  the  one  bud  should  be  kept  from 
growing  by  frequent  sprouting. 

OTIIKR    METHODS 

It  would  require  another  chapter  to  describe  the  many  other 
forms  of  graft  ing,  budding,  and  combinations  of  each,  with 
methods  of  propagation  in  use  by  skilled  nurserymen,  tree  grow- 
ers, and  plant  breeders.  These  lines  are  intended  only  to  define 
methods  for  the  use  of  the  orchardist,  yet  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
make  a  note  of  a  few  forms  in  use. 

Crown  Grafting.  Where  stocks  are  heavy,  say  four  inches  or 
more,  numerous  scions  are  inserted  in  V  cuts  around  the  stock. 

Sad  (He  Grafting.  Where  the  scion  is  shouldered  and  fitted 
upon  the  stock. 

Peg  Grafting.  .  Similar  to  cleft  grafting.  The  scion  is  sharp- 
ened and  inserted  in  an  auger  hole. 

Inarching.  Where  a  grafted  union  is  formed  by  uniting  the 
branches  of  two  different  trees,  and  separating  after  wounds  have 
healed. 

Insert  Grafting.  A  green  or  a  dormant  scion  is  budded  into  a 
growing  plant. 

Flute  or  Ring  Budding.  A  ring  of  bark  containing  a  bud  is 
fitted  into  the  space  where  a  similar  ring  has  been  removed. 

./ nne  Budding.  As  soon  as  a  stock  will  peel,  buds  are  cut  from 
scions  previously  preserved.  As  soon  as  the  union  is  complete  the 
top  is. cut  and  the  bud  forced  out.  This  is  the  way  to  grow  the 
June  budded  peach,  but  is  not  practicable  for  other  trees. 

Statements  by  ancient  authors  that  vines  are  grafted  on  fig 
trees,  apples  on  planes,  etc.,  are  not  to  be  credited. 

For  practical  purposes  and  for  commercial  use,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  stock  and  scion  of  the  same  or  very  nearly 


964  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING  965 

related  species  are  to  be  used.     All   attempts  at   grafting  fail 
except  among  plants  of  the  same  genus  or  of  the  same  family. 

NOTES   ON   GRAFTING   AND   BUDDING   OF   OUR   ORDINARY    FRUIT   TREES 

Apples.  All  varieties  make  good  union  on  all  other  varieties 
and  upon  the  common  or  seedling  apples. 

Dwarf  apples  are  produced  by  budding  on  Paradise  or  Doucin 
bush  species.  Apples  do  not  thrive  worked  on  crab. 

Pears  fail  if  worked  on  apple  stocks. 

Varieties  of  pears  interchange  on  other  varieties,  except  Keiffer 
is  not  an  approved  stock  on  which  to  graft  Bartlett,  Bosc,  Seckel, 
etc.,  but  Keiffer  does  well  grafted  on  Bartlett  and  other  varieties. 

Dwarf  pears  are  common  varieties  budded  on  Angers  quince 
stocks,  but  fail  if  budded  on  Orange. 

Keiffer  is  not  a  permanent  dwarf. 

Dwarf  pears  are  best  if  only  varieties  having  large  quince- 
shaped  leaves  are  united. 

Plums.  Japan  sorts  make  good  union  on  Myrebolan  stock  and 
on  peach.  The  former  live  longer. 

European  plums  are  usually  worked  on  plum  stock.  They  par- 
tially fail  on  peach  stock. 

The  peach  thrives  best  on  peach  stock  dwarfs  and  fail  on  plum 
stock. 

Cherry.  Sour  types  thrive  on  Mahaleb  stock  and  on  Mazzard, 
but  sweet  types  are  best  on  Mazzard. 

GRAFTING   OF   GRAPEVINES 

Scions  made  from  wood  of  the  preceding  year's,  growth  are 
selected  and  cut  as  illustrated  on  page  960  for  cleft  grafting,  or 
on  page  958  for  tongue  grafting.  Cleft  grafts  are  inserted  when 
the  stock  is  —  say  larger  than  one  inch  in  diameter;  and  tongue  or 
splice  grafting  is  done  on  branches  less  than  one  inch,  or  as  small 
as  the  diameter  of  the  scion. 

Grafting  of  grapes  should  be  done  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
soil  can  be  taken  away  from  the  stock.  The  scion  should  be  set 
just  underground,  or  low  enough  on  the  stock  to  permit  covering 
or  banking  to  the  top  bud  of  the  scion.  Grafting,  however,  may 
be  performed  on  an  arm  of  a  vine  at  such  a  point  as  will  permit 


966  Tin:  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

of  bending  the  branch  to  the  ground,  where  it  can  be  laid  low  and 
covered  with  a  mound  of  earth.  Grapes  cannot  be  successfully 
grafted  and  left  above  ground,  as  can  tree  stock.  They  must  be 
buried  or  mounded  as  indicated. 

For  grafting  grapevines  the  following  cheap  and  easily  pre- 
pared substitute  for  wax  may  be  used :  1  peck  of  clay ;  y%  peck 
of  fresh  cow  droppings.  Moisten  and  thoroughly  mix;  add  a 
handful  of  hair,  such  as  is  used  in  mortar,  or  even  a  handful  of 
short  grass  may  be  used  if  hair  is  not  available. 

Grapes  are  never  budded.  In  connection  with  grafting  grapes 
note  matter  on  pages  957  and  959  relative  to  selection  of  scions, 
method  of  cutting,  and  also  that  with  reference  to  proper  tying 
of  the  stock  to  hold  the  scion  firmly  in  place. 


PHYSICAL  INJURIES  TO  TREES 

B.  D.  VAN  BUREN 

Assistant  Chief,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  State  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  meadow  mice  and  cotton-tail  rabbits  throughout  the  state, 
and  the  jack-rabbits  in  the  Hudson  valley,  cause  serious  injury, 
usually  to  young  trees.  If  trees  are  mounded  eight  or  ten  inches 
high  with  earth  in  the  fall,  and  the  mounds  are  steep,  but  few 
mice  will  climb  the  mounds  and  girdle  the  trees.  Wood  veneer 
sheets  or  tarred  paper  protectors,  if  properly  placed,  will  protect 
the  trees  from  injury.  Both  of  these  should  be  removed  during 
the  summer  and  replaced  in  fall  or  early  winter.  Fine  screen 
iralvani/ed  wire,  %-inch  mesh,  one  foot  high,  is  effective  in  pro- 
tecting against  mice,  and,  if  higher,  is  also  effective  against  rab- 
bits—  but  is  quite  expensive.  For  rabbits  alone,  guards  three 
feet  high  made  from  one-inch  mesh  galvanized  chick  wire  are  very 
effective  and  not  extremely  expensive.  These  can  be  put  on  when 
trees  are  planted  and  left  for  six  or  eight  years.  Use  the  one- 
foot  high  wire  and  cut  to  the  desired  length.  This  gives  a 
cylinder  four  inches  in  diameter  and  will  furnish  protection 
against  rabbits  about  as  long  as  needed.  Concentrated  lime 
sulphur  has  been  quite  effective  as  a  repellent  and  has  been  used 
extensively.  At  least  two  applications  must  be  made  each  season: 
in  November  or  early  December  at  the  first  sign  of  injury,  and 
again  about  February  first.  This  in  the  long  run  is  fully  as 
expensive  as  the  protectors  and  not  so  safe.  In  case  of  very  heavy 
snows  it  might  be1  necessary  to  paint  the  trunks  and  branches  above 
the  protectors  with  lime  and  sulphur,  but  this  will  be  unnecessary 
most  seasons  in  the  commercial  apple  growing  sections. 

HOW  TO  TREAT  INJURIES  FROM  MICE  AND  RABBITS 

Remove  carefully  with  a  knife  all  loose  and  dead  bark.  Paint 
with  asphaltum,  coal  tar,  or  white  lead  and  oil,  that  part  of  the 
wound  from  which  the  bark  and  cambium  layer  have  been 
removed,  allowing  none  of  the  material  used  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  live  bark.  If  the  tree  has  been  completely  girdled,  fhe 
inner  bark  of  cambium  having  been  entirely  destroyed,  there  are 

[967] 


1)68  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW   YORK  STATE 

only  two  ways  to  save  the  trees :  to  train  up  a  new  shoot  from  helow 
the  injury  and  above  the  bud,  or  to  bridge  graft.  AVhere  the 
entire  trunk  is  girdled  and  the  injury  is  more  than  twelve  inches 
in  length,  it  is  doubtful  if  bridge  grafting  would  be  worth  while, 
but  where  the  injury  is  twelve  inches  or  less  it  can  be  done  suc- 
cessfully and  is  well  worth  while  on  trees  that  have  been  set  from 
two  to  twenty  years.  The  edges  of  the  wound  should  be  trimmed 
and  the  scions  cut  slightly  longer  than  the  injured  area.  Spring- 
ing them  slightly  like  a  bow,  insert  the  ends  under  the  uninjured 
bark  at  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  wound.  All  exposed 
surfaces  should  be  carefully  waxed,  and,  if  the  injury  is  near  the 
ground,  the  earth  should  be  mounded  well  above  it,  so  as  to  keep 
the  injured  portion  moist  and  make  conditions  favorable  for 
callousing  or  the  uniting  of  the  scions  with  the  bark.  From 
three  to  twelve  or  fifteen  of  these  scions  should  be  used.  The 
number  varying  with  the  size  of  the  tree.  Good,  thrifty,  last 
season's  growths  are  most  easily  handled  and  are  most  satisfac- 
tory. See  Figure  for  illustration  of  bridge  grafting. 


STATISTICS 


E  SHOWING  NUMBER  OF  AI-I-M.  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN 

BUSHELS  IN  NEW  YORK  STATK  IJY  Cor  XT  IKS  (IT.  S.  CENSUS 
1910) 

County  Trees  Bushels 

Albany 231,398  527,829 

Alli'gany 199,084  238,385 

Broome 115,582  I  »2,037 

Cattaraugus 287,788  558,039 

( 'ay  uga 252,458  484,341 

Chautauqu^ 299,329  646,269 

Clu-mung 62.779  84,726 

(  lictiango 145,604  234,738 

Clinton 147,313  73,691 

Columbia 297,579  892,590 

Cortland   95,277  131,575 

Delaware     190,896  350,229 

Dutchess 303,015  794,753 

Krir 472,932  623,234 

Essex 71,168  46,25? 

Franklin 73,303  75,795 

Fulton ^31,181  33,937 

Genesee 300,865  581,026 

( irocne 274,123      .      630,061 

Hamilton 4,793  6,451 

Herkimer 83,601  136,281 

Jefferson 79,896  82,413 

Kings 50  40 

Lewis 29,341  33,196 

Livingston 144,958  218,441 

Madison 140,569  225,464 

Monroe 702,841  2,592,378 

Montgomery 77,804  131,264 

Nassau ' 10,140  15,403 

New  York : 35 

Niagara 804,155  2,366,600 

Oneida 184,979  264,627 

Onomlaga 202,140  282,411 

Ontario 369,050  913,214 

Orange 122,633  277,355 

Orleans 549,749  2,229,462 

Oswego 269,724  405,951 

Otsego  .      194,986  282,384 

[969] 


9TO 


STATISTICS 


County 

Trees 

Bushels 

Putnam  

48,483 

121,815 

Queens  

122 

102 

Rensselaer  

159,554 

300,738 

Richmond  

742 

1,211 

Rockland  

58,390 

110,235 

St.  Lawrence  

150,130 

180,406 

Saratoga  

137,202 

175,808 

Schenectady  

4<J,032 

82,252 

Schoharie  

103.702 

219,343 

Schuyler  

90,507 

108,352 

Seneca  

123,437 

270,004 

Steuben  

248,951 

338,957 

Suffolk  

27,700 

28,431 

Sullivan  

159,258 

315,058 

Tioga   

70,203 

90,324 

Tompkins  

119,084 

154,058 

Ulster  

240,933 

007,571 

Warren  

75,557 

63,514 

Washington  .  .  .    .  

•  111,009 

128,000 

Wayne   

812,410 

3,304,197 

Westchester  

139,937 

253,870 

Wyoming  

270,801 

024,899 

Yates  

101,101 

238,000 

The  State  

11,248,203 

25,409,324 

INDEX 


A  grade  apples,  branding,  ti7»i. 

what   constitutes,   671,   675,   676. 

America,   Introduction  of  Apple  into, 

and    New    York    State,    C.    S. 

Wilson,  743-760. 

Anthony,    R.    D.,    Cover    Crops,    785- 

793. 

Aphids,  840. 
Aphis,  green,  659,  846. 

wooly,  in  nurseries,  651. 
Apple,    crab,    nomenclature    of,    743, 

744. 

Diseases,     Some     of     Our     Most 
Common,   H.    H.    Whetzel   and 
L.  R.  Hesler,  855-870. 
fertilizers  for,  811-815. 
graders    in    evaporating    plants, 

JUS,  !)!!). 
Grading  Law,  B.  D.   Van  Buren, 

669-679. 

history  of,  669,  670. 
inspection  relative  to,  690. 
interpretation  of  terms,  674- 

677. 

New  York  State,  670-674. 
standard   grades   under,   670, 

671,  674,  675. 
United  States,  677,  678. 
violation  of,  678. 
influence  of  early  botanic  gardens 

on,  746,  748. 
Insects      Particularly      Affecting 

the,  E.  P.  Felt,  842-854. 
Introduction  of,  into  America  and 
New  York  State,  C.  S.  Wil- 
son, 743-760. 
into  colonies,  744,  746. 
into  New    York   State,   748- 

755. 

first  orchard  planted,  748. 
orchards  in  Hudson  Val- 
ley Section,  749, 750. 
Downing,  orchard, 
750. 


Apple,    Introduction   into   New   York 
State  —  Continued : 

orchards  in  Lake  Region t 
750-755. 
work      of      Patrick 

Barry,  755. 

into  the  West,  755,  756. 
monuments   to   original  varieties 

of,  759,  760. 
native,  743,  744. 

orchard,  first     planted     in     New 
York  State,   748. 

old,  care  of,  824-829. 
young,  care  of,  816-823 
Orchards,  Sod  Mulch  vs.  Tillage 

for,  W.  D.  Auchter,  803-810. 
Packing  Train,  F.  S.  Welsh,  679- 

683. 

equipment,  679. 
plan  followed,  680,  681. 
representatives      accompany- 
ing, 680. 

results  obtained,  682,  683. 
propagation  of,  by  Indians,  748, 

749. 
scab  disease,  660,  855-861. 

control   measures,   858-861. 
description  of,  856,  858. 
influence  of  weather  on,  858 
statistics    relative    to    the,    965, 

966. 

tent  caterpillar,  851,  852,  854. 
tillage    methods    for,    776-784. 
tree,  borer,  854. 

canker,  New   York,   861-863. 
control     measures,     862, 

863. 

European,  868. 
first  in  America,  744. 
well-known  varieties,  history  of, 

756-760. 
worm,  846-850. 
Apples,    central   packing   houses    for, 

895-905. 

Dwarf,  U.   P.   Hedrick,   871-888. 
evaporated,  937-949. 


[971] 


972 


INDEX 


Apples  —  Continued : 

Exporting,  C.   W.   Kimball,  911- 

914. 

Exports  from  United  States  and 

Canada,  H.  B.  Knapp,  934-936. 

in  New  York  City,  Receipts  and 

Prices  for,  H.  B.  Knapp,  927- 

934. 

of  New  York,  S.  A.  Beach,  761- 
768. 
in    eastern    New    Y'ork,    765, 

766. 
in  northern  New  York,  766- 

768. 
in  western  New   York,  762- 

765. 

on  Long  Island,  766. 
Profits    on    a    Barrel    of,    U.    P. 

Hedrick,  889-894. 
selling  at  auction  in  Europe,  912, 

913. 
Soil  Types  for  Varieties  of,  H.  J. 

Wilder,  769-775. 
Appleseed  John,  755,  756. 
Arsenate  of  lead  as  spray,  829,  842, 

848,  852. 
Atwood,  G.  G.,  Grafting  and  Budding, 

957-966. 

Inspection  Work  of  Department 
in     Relation     to     Horticulture, 
684-693. 
Auchter  orchard,  experiments  in,  803- 

810,  889-894. 

Auchter,  W.   D.,   Sod  Mulch  vs.  Til- 
lage   for   Apple  Orchards,   803-810. 
Auction  Houses,  a  coming  necessity, 

925. 

as  Distributors  of  Fruit  and 
Vegetables,  V.  K.  McElheny, 
915-926. 

auctioneer,  qualifications  of,  920. 
competitive  bidding,  918. 
expense  of,  922. 
history  of  business,  915,  916. 
influence    of,     in    bringing    good 
prices,  922,  923. 

in  widening  distribution,  924. 
prices  stand,  919,  920. 
private  sale  method,  918. 
public  sale  system,  918,  919. 


Auction  Houses  —  Continued : 

relief  of  glutted  markets,  922. 
service   rendered  by,  916. 

Auctioneer,    qualifications    of,    920. 

B 

B  grade  apples,  branding,  676. 
what  constitutes,  671,  675. 
Baldwin      apple,      Auchter      orchard 
experiments       with,       803-810, 
889-894. 

history  of,  756,  758. 
monthly   prices   for   a   barrel   of, 

929-931. 

monument  to,   758,  759. 
soils  suited  to,  773. 
spot,  863-867. 

cause  of.  865. 

Bark  beetle,  fruit  tree,  854. 
Barley   as  a    cover   crop   in   orchard, 

791. 
Barrel  of  apples,  monthly  prices  for, 

929-933. 
Profit  on  a,  U.  P.  Hedrick,  889- 

894. 

Barry,  Patrick,  work  of,  in  propagat- 
ing apple,  755. 
Beach,   S.   A.,   Apples   of  New    York, 

761-768. 

Beans  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  791. 
Ben  Davis  apple,  monthly  prices  for, 

931-933. 

soils  suited  to,  775. 
Bitter  pit  of  apple,  863-867. 
Black  rot  of  apple  tree,  861-863. 

control  measures,  862,  863. 
Bleachers   used  in  evaporating   fruit, 

949,  950. 

Blight,  fire,  of  apple,  870. 
Blister  canker,  Illinois,  867,  869. 
Blotch  disease,  sooty,  869,  870. 
Bordeaux  mixture  as  spray,  660,  842, 

860. 

Borers,  854. 
Botanic   gardens,    influence    of   early, 

746,  748. 
Branding  apple   containers,   672,   673, 

676. 
Bridge  grafting,  961,  964. 


INDEX 


973 


Buckwheat  as  cover  crop  in  orchard, 

778,  791. 

Bud  moth,  851,  852. 
Budding,  flute,  or  ring,  963. 

Grafting  and,  G.  G.  At  wood,  957- 

966. 

in  nurseries,  655,  657,  659. 
June,  963. 

methods  used,   961-963. 
notes  on,  965. 
proper  time  for,  961. 
Burritt,     M.     C.,     Intercropping     the 

Young  Orchard,  794-802. 
Buying  Direct  from  Producers,  Selling 
on  Commission  and,  J.  H.  Killough, 
906-910. 

C 
Canada,    central    packing    houses    in, 

895-905. 
exports    of    apples    from    United 

States  and,  934-936. 
Canker,  apple  tree,  European,  867. 
New  York,  861-863. 

control    measures,     862-863. 
blister,  Illinois,  867,  869. 
Cankerworms,  851,  852. 
Care  of,  Old  Orchard,  R.  P.  McPher-' 

son,  824-829. 
Young  Trees,  W.  Hotaling,  816- 

823. 

Case  bearers,  851,  852. 
Catchpole,   E.   W.,   Evaporated   Fruit 
Industry  in  New  York  St'ate,  937- 
949. 

Caterpillar,  apple  tent,  851,  852,  854. 
Central    Lakes    fruit-growing   region, 

643. 

Central  Packing  Houses,  for  New 
York  Fruit,  F.  S.  Welsh,  895- 
905. 

combination  of,  903,  904. 
facilities  fc:^  in  New  York  State, 

904,  905. 

in  Canada,  895-904. 
increase  in  number  of,  903. 
in    relation    to     Apple     Packing 

Law,  895. 

methods     of    handling     fruit     in 
Canada,  900-902. 


Central  Packing  Houses  —  Continued: 

present  methods  of  packing  fruit 

in  New   York   State,  896,  898. 

types  of,  898-900. 

Champlain  Valley,   fruit  growing  in, 

642. 

Chandler,   W.   H.,   Tillage,   776-784. 
Chautauqua   (irape   Belt,  644. 
Chicago  Land  Show,  fruit  exhibit  at, 

711,  712. 

Cion.     See  Scion. 
Cleft  Grafting,  957,  959,  960. 
Closed  package,  branding  of,  675,  676. 
meaning   of,    in   Apple   Law,   673, 

677,  680,  681. 
repacking  of,  677. 
Clover  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  778, 

790. 
Codling  moth,  846-850. 

control  measures,  848-850. 
Color  of  apples,  interpretation  of  law 

relative  to,  674. 

Columbian     Exposition,     Exhibit     of 
New  New   York   Fruit  at,   E.   van 
Alstyne,  706,  707. 
Commission  merchant,   true  function 

of,  908,  909. 

Commission,  Selling  on,  and  Buying 
Direct  from  Producers,  J.  H  Kil- 
lough, 906-910. 

Common    Apple    Diseases,    Some    of 
Our  Most,   H.   H.   Whetzel  and  L. 
R.  Hesler,  855-870. 
Consumer,  direct  sales  to,  906-908. 
Cover  Crops,  R.  D.  Anthony,  785-793. 
combinations,  793. 
in    relation    to    tillage,    776-778, 

781,  782,  803,  804. 
leguminous,  790,  791. 
non-leguminous,  791. 
principles  of  use,  785-790. 
Crab  apple,  the  native  apple,  743. 
Crown   gall,    danger   of,    in   grafting, 

655,  659,  660. 
Crown  grafting,  959. 
Cultivation     in    the    apple    orchard, 

776-784,  £20,  826. 

Cutting  back,  inadvisability  of  severe, 
837. 


974 


INDEX 


Dawley,  F.  E.,  Fruit  Exhibits  at  Pan- 
American   Exposition,   707-709. 
Dehorning,    inadvisability    of    severe, 

837. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  horticul- 
tural inspection  work,  684-693. 
Diseases,  Apple,  Some   of   our   Most 
Common,  H.  H.  Whetzel  and  L. 
R.  Hesler,  855-870. 
apple  scab,  855-861. 
Baldwin  spot,  863-867. 
bitter  pit,  863-867. 
black  rot,  861-863. 
canker,  apple  tree,  European,  867. 
New  York,  861-863. 
blister,   Illinois,   867-869. 
fire  blight,  870. 
leaf  spot,  861-863. 
sooty  blotch,  869,  870. 
stippin,  863-867. 
Districts,  Fruit,  of  New  York,  U.  P. 

Hedrick,  638-645. 
Doucin  as  dwarf  stock,  874-888. 
Downings,  influence  of,  on  apple  in- 
dustry, 750. 

Drainage,    importance    of,     in     fruit 
growing,  651,  652,  653,  769,  770,  771, 
775. 
Dwarf   apples,    U.    P.    Hedrick,    871- 

888. 

experiments  relative  to,  874-888. 
care  of  orchards,  876. 
plan  of,  876. 
results  of,  878-887. 
size,  color,  quality  of  apples, 

887. 

size  of  trees,  882. 
suckering  habit,   882. 
surface  rooting,  880,  882. 
time  of  bearing,  886. 
union  of   stocks  and   scions, 

878,  880. 

varieties  that  do  best,  887. 
winter  injury,  880. 
yield  of  fruit,  884-886. 
how  formed,  871. 
stocks,  dwarfing,  872,  874. 

•  standard,  872. 
Dwarfing  stocks,  872,  874. 


Early  Joe  apple,  monument  to,  745, 

760. 
Eastern     New     York     Horticultural 

Society,  729. 
Eastern    Plateau,    fruit    growing    in, 

642,  643,  765,  766. 
Equilateral   method  of  setting  trees, 

818,  819. 

Erie  shore  fruit  district,  644,  645. 
Essentials  of  tree  growth,  824,  826. 
Europe,  selling  apples  at  auction  in, 

912,  913,  915,  916. 
European  apple-tree  canker,  868. 
Evaporated    Fruit    Industry    of   New 
York   State,   E.  W.  Catchpole, 
937-953. 

appliances   used   in,   940-951. 
evolution  of,  937,  939. 
markets,  951-953. 

Evaporation,  apples  suitable  for,  939. 
appliances  for,  940,  942. 

early  history  of,  940,  942. 
later  types,  946. 
middle  period  types,  942. 
process  of,  940. 
Evaporators,  940-951. 

machinery    and   appliances,    948- 

951. 

apple  graders,  .948,  949. 
bleachers,  949,  950. 
fuel,  951. 
furnace,  950,  951. 
paring  machine,  949. 
racks,  951. 

Exhibits,    fruit,    at    Columbian    Ex- 
position, 706,  707. 
at  Land  Shows,  710-712. 
at  Panama  Exposition,  712-716. 
at  Pan-American  Exposition,  707- 

709. 

at  State  Fair,  694-705. 
Exporting    Apples,    C.    W.    Kimball, 

911-914. 

competition  with  Canada,  913. 
growth  of  business,  911. 
importance    of    good    pack,    911, 

912. 

sales  by  auction,  912,  913. 
South  American  trade,   913,  914. 
varieties  for  special  markets,  912. 


I.NDKX 


975 


Exports  of  Apples  from  United 
States  and  Canada,  H.  B.  Knapp, 
934-936. 


Fancy  grade  apples,  branding,  676. 
what  constitutes,  670,  671,  674. 
Felt,     E.     P.,      Insects     Particularly 

AlVecting  the  Apple,  842-854. 
Fertili/ers.     e\j)eriments     with,     811, 

812,  814. 

factors  governing  use  of,  814,  815. 
for   Fruits,  U.   P.   Hedrick,   811- 

815. 

soils  requiring,  814. 
why  apples  do  not  need,  812-815. 
Fire  blight,  in  nurseries,  660. 

<>f  apples,  870. 
Flute  budding,  963. 
Fraser,  S.,  Nursery  Industry  in  New 

York.  64(5-001. 
French  Paradise  as  dwarf  stock,  874- 

888. 

Fruit,    Central    Packing    Houses    for 
New   York,  F.  S.   Welsh,  895- 
905. 
Districts    of    New    York,    U.    P. 

Hedrick,  638-645. 
Central  Lakes,  643,  644. 
Eastern  Plateau,  642,  643. 
Erie  Shore,  644,  645. 
Hudson  Valley  640. 
Long  Island,  639. 
Mohawk  Valley,  642. 
Ontario  Shore,  644. 
St.  Lawrence  and  Champlain 

Valleys,  640,  642. 
Western  Plateau,  645. 
evaporated,  937-953. 
Exchange,  Hudson  River,  W.  Y. 

Velie,  731-740. 
exhibits,  694-716. 

at  Columbian  Exposition,  E. 

van  Alstyne,  706,  707. 
at1  Land  Shows  and  Panama 
Exposition,    C.    G.    Porter, 
710-716. 

at  Pan-American  Exposition, 
F.  E.  Dawley,  707-709. 


Fruit  —  Continued : 

exhibits,  at  State  Fair,  History 
of,  H.  B.  Knapp,  694- 
7  "5. 

by  boys  and  girls,  705. 
collective,  702. 
early  premium  list,  696- 

699. 

educational,    by    experi- 
ment station,  702,  703. 
itinerant  period  of,  694. 
permanent    location    se- 
cured for,  (599-702. 
single  plate,  703. 
value  of,   to   state,   705. 
Growers'  Association,  New  York 
State,   E.   C.   Gillett,   727- 
730. 

early  history,  727. 
Eastern    New   York   Society, 

729. 

field  meetings,  730. 
objects  of,  728. 
work  of,  728,  729. 
Fruit-tree  bark  beetle,  854. 
Fruits,      Auction      Houses     as      Dis- 
tributors of,  V.  K.  McElheny, 
915-926. 
Fertilizers    for,    U.    P.    Hedrick, 

811-815. 

value  of,  in  New  York  State,  635. 
Fungicides,  law  relative  to,  690. 


Gillett,  E.  C.,  New  York  State  Fruit 

Growers'  Association,  727-730. 
Grading    Law,     Apple,     B.     D.     Van 

Buren,  669-679. 
in  Canada,  895-905. 
Grafting,'and  Budding,  G.  G.  Atwood, 

957-966. 
dangers    of    crown    gall    in,    655, 

659,  660. 

in  nurseries,  655,  658,  659. 
introduction  of,  750. 
methods  of,  957-961,  963. 
bridge,  961. 
cleft,  957,  959,  960. 
crown,  959,  963. 
insert,  963. 


976 


INDEX 


Grafting,  Methods  of  —  Continued : 
peg,  963. 
root,  959. 
saddle,  963. 
splice,    957-959. 
tongue,  957-959. 
top,  957-959. 
wedge,  957,  959,  960. 
notes  on,  965. 
of  grapevines,  965,  966. 
wax,  961. 

Grape  Belt,  Chautauqua,  644. 
Grapevines,  grafting,  965,  966. 
Green,  aphis,  659,  846. 

fruit  worm,  851,  852. 
Grimes    apple,    soils    suited    to,    774, 
775. 

H 

Hairy  root  of  apple,  651,  659,  660. 
Hall,  John,  Western  New  York  Horti- 
cultural  Society,   717-726. 
Hardpan  in  relation  to  orchard  land, 

770. 
Hedrick,  U.  P.,  Dwarf  Apples,   871- 

888. 

Fertilizers  for  Fruits,  811-815. 
Fruit    Districts    of    New    York, 

638-645. 
Profits    on    a    Barrel    of    Apples, 

889-894. 

Hesler,  L.  R.,  Some  of  our  Most  Com- 
mon   Apple    Diseases    (with    H.   H. 
Whetzel),  855-870. 
History   of   Fruit    Exhibits   at   State 

Fair,  H.  B.  Knapp,  694-705. 
Hitchings  method  in  care  of  orchard, 

803. 

Hop  kiln  evaporator,  946. 
Horticultural,   exhibits    at    fairs    and 

expositions,  694-716T 
inspection   work   by   Department 

of  Agriculture,  684-693. 
publications,  Deparment,  693. 
Society,  Eastern  New  York,  729. 
Western    New    York,    John 

Hall,  717-726. 
Hotaling,  W.,  Care  of  Young  Trees, 

816-823. 

Hubbardston  apples,  soil  suitable  for, 
774. 


Hudson  River  Fruit  Exchange,  W.  Y. 

Velie,  731-740. 

buying  and  selling  direct,  736. 
by-laws  of,  733,  734. 
constitution,  732,  733. 
membership    and    finances,     737, 

739. 
methods  of  disposing  of  products, 

735,  736. 

organization,  731,  732. 
selling        through        commission 

houses",  735,  736. 
work   accomplished,  739,  740. 
Hudson  Valley  fruit  district,  640. 

early   orchards   in,   749,   750. 


Illinois  blister  canker,  867,  869. 

Inarching,  963. 

Injuries,    Physical,    to    Trees,    B.    D. 

Van  Buren,  963,  964. 
Insecticides,  law  relative  to,  690. 

use  of,  842,  846. 
Insects     Particularly     Affecting     the 

Apple,  E.  P.  Felt,  842-854. 
aphids,  or  plant  lice,  846. 
apple  worm,  846-850. 
borers,  854. 

apple-tree,  854. 
fruit-tree  bark  beetle,  854. 
codling  moth,  846-850. 
leaf  feeders,  early,  851-854. 

apple    tent    caterpillar,    851, 

852. 

bud  moth,  851,  852. 
cankerworms,  851,  852. 
case  bearers,  851,  852. 
green  fruit'  worms,  851,  852. 
leaf  roller,  851,  852,  854. 
red  bugs,  850,  851. 
scale,  oyster  shell,  844,  845. 
San  Jose,  829,  843,  844. 
scurvy,  845. 
Insert  grafting,  963. 
Inspection    Work    of    Department    in 
Relation  to  Horticulture,  G.  G. 
Atwood,  684-693. 
apple  grading,  690. 
bee,  690,  691. 
insecticides   and    fungicides,   690. 


INDEX 


977 


Inspection   works  —  Continued : 
nursery,  085. 
orchard,  688. 
pathological,  689. 
scouting,  687. 
shipment,  685-087. 

foreign,   087. 

Intercrop  in  orchard,  781,  794-802. 
Intercropping  the  Young  Orchard,  M. 

T.  Burritt,  794-80:3. 
ap})les  with  peaches.  SOO-802. 
cost  of  production,  795-797. 
returns  and  expenses,  798-800. 
value  of,  797,  798. 
Introduction,  635-637. 

of  Apple  into  America  and  Xew 
York  State,  C.  S.  Wilson,  743- 
760. 

J 
Jonathan  apple,  soils  suited  to,  774, 

775. 
June  budding,  963. 

K 

Killough,  J.  H.,  Selling  on  Commis- 
sion and  Buying  Direct  from  Pro- 
ducers, 906-910. 

Kiln  evaporators,  946-951.  , 

Kimball.    C      W.,    Exporting    Apples, 

911-914. 

Knapp,  II.   B..  History  of  Fruit  Ex- 
hibits at   State   Fair,  094-705. 
Receipts    and    Prices    of    Apples 
and      Exports      from      United 
States  and  Canada,  927-936. 


Law,     Apple     Grading,     B.     D.     Van 

Buren,  669-679. 
Leaf  roller,  851,  852,  854. 
Leaf  spot  of  apple,  861-863. 
Leguminous  cover  crops,  790,  791. 
Lice,  plant,  treatment  for,  846. 
Lime-sulphur  as  spray,  660,  82*8,  829, 

842.  844,  860. 
Lined  red  bug,  850,  851. 
Long  Island,   fruit   growing  on,   639, 

766. 
Low -headed  trees,  pruning  to  produce, 

832. 


M 

McKlheny,  V.  K.,  Auction  Houses  as 
Distributors    of    Fruits    and    Vege- 
tables, 915-926. 
Mclntosh    apple,    monument   to,    745, 

759, 

soils  adapted  to,  774. 
McKay.    (J.    II.,    Various    Methods    of 
Ket'rigcration     and     Advantage    to 
Public,    (iti:.'    008. 
MrPherson,    K.    P.,   C'are    of   the    Old 

Orchard,  824-829. 
Marketing    fruit,    problems    of,    927, 

928. 
method    used    by    Hudson    River 

Fruit  Exchange,  735,  736. 
Melon  apple,  monument  to,  745,  760. 
Mice,  injury  to  trees  by,  963,  964. 
Minimum    size,   apple   law,   671,    672, 

676. 

Miscible  oil  in  spray,  854. 
Mohawk    Valley,    fruit    growing    in, 

642. 

Monuments    to    varieties    of    apples, 
759,  760. 

N 

New    York,    apple-tree    canker,    861- 

863. 

Apples  of,  S.  A.  Beach,  761-768. 
City,     apples     In,     receipts     and 

prices  of,  927-934. 
Fruit  Districts  of,  U.  P.  Hedrick, 

638-345. 
Land    Shows,    fruit    exhibits    at, 

710,  711. 
Nursery  Industry   in,  S.   Fraser, 

646-661. 

State,  Evaporated  Fruit  Industry 
of,  E.  W.  Catchpole,  937- 
953. 
Fruit    Growers'    Association, 

E.  C.  Gillett,  727-730. 
Introduction    of    Apple    into 
America   and,   C.    S.    Wil- 
son, 743-700. 

Nicotine  in  spray,  842,  844,  846,  851. 
Northern,  New  York,  apple  growing 
in,  766-768. 


978 


INDEX 


Northern  Spy  apple,  history  of,  758. 
monthly  prices  for,  931. 
monument  to,  747,  760. 
soil  types  for,  774. 
Nova  Scotia,  central  packing  houses 

in,  898-903. 
Nursery   Industry   in   New    York,    S. 

Fraser,  646-661. 
after-management,  657,  659. 
digging,  method  of,  659. 
drainage,     importance     of,     651, 

652,  653. 
history  of,  660. 
insects  and  diseases,  659,  660. 
planting,  653,  654. 
preparation  of  land,  652,  653. 
seedlings,  656. 
selection  and  purchase  of  stock, 

654,  661. 
soils  adapted  to,  650,  651. 

disease  in  certain,  651,  652. 
statistics  relative  to,  648-650. 

O 
Oats  as  cover  crop   in  orchard,   778, 

791. 
Old  Orchard,  Care  of,  R.  P.  McPher- 

son,  824-829. 
Oldenburg  apple,   soils  desirable   for, 

775. 

Ontario  Shore   fruit  district,  644. 
Orchard,  apple,  Auchter,  experiments 

in,  803-810,  880-894. 
first  planted  in  New  York  State, 

748. 

laying  out,  816-819. 
Old,  Care   of,  R.   P.   McPherson, 

824-829. 
cultivation,  826. 
essentials    to    tree    growth, 

824,  826. 
fertilization,  826. 
pruning,  827,  828. 
spraying,  828.  829. 
young,  care  of,  820-823. 

Intercropping     the,     M.     C. 

Burritt,  794-802. 

Orchards,  apple,  Sod  Mulch  vs.  Till- 
age  for,  W.  D.   Auchter,   803-810. 
Oyster-shell  scale,  844,  845. 


Packing,  apple,  law  relative  to,  669- 

679. 

Train,  F.  S.  Welsh,  679-683. 
Houses,   Central,   for   New   York 
Fruit,   F.   S.   Welsh,   895- 
905. 

types  of,  898-900. 

present  methods  of,  896,  898. 

Panama  Exposition,  fruit  exhibits  at, 

712-716. 

Pan-American   Exposition,  Fruit  Ex- 
hibits at,  F.  E.  Dawley,  707-709. 
Paring  machine  in  evaporating  plant, 

949. 
Peas   as  cover  crop   in   orchard,   778, 

791. 

Peg  grafting,  963. 
Physical  Injuries  to  Trees,  B.  D.  Van 

Buren,  963,  964. 
Plant  lice,  treatment  for,  846. 
Porter,    C.    O.,    New    York    Fruit    at 
Land    Shows    and     San     Francisco 
Exposition,  710-716. 
Powdery  mildew,  660. 
Prices  of   apples,  receipts   and,   927- 

934. 
Primate  apple  tree,  tablet  in  memory 

of,  751,  760. 

Producers,  Buying  Direct  from,  Sell- 
ing on  Commission  and,  J.  H.  Kil- 
lough,  906-910. 
Profits  on  a  Barrel  of  Apples,  U.  P. 

Hedrick,  889-894. 
average  yield,  889-890. 
balance  sheet,  894. 
cost  of,  barrels,  893. 

harvesting,  892,  893. 
pruning,  892. 
spraying,  892. 
tillage,  891,  892. 
depreciation  of  outfit,  891. 
expense  of  superintendent,  892. 
interest  on  investment,  890,  891. 
orchard  selected,  889. 
prices  received,  894. 
summary,  8'93. 
taxes,  891. 

Pruning,  E.  van  Alstyne,  830-841. 
advisability  of  annual,  834. 


INDEX 


979 


Pruning  —  Continued : 

cutting  back  or  dehorning,  837. 

dangers  <>i'  too  >evere,  831. 

dwarf  trees,  878. 

in  old  orchard,  827,  828. 

low-headed  trees,  832. 

proper  time  for,  838,  839. 

reasons  for,  830,  831. 

root,  840,  841. 

thinning,  834-837. 

tools,  841. 

tree  surgery,  839,  840. 

young  trees,  819,  831,  832. 
Public  sales  of  fruit,  915-926. 

R 

Rabbits,  injuries  to  trees  by,  963,  964. 
Rape  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,   778, 

791. 

Reading  Terminal  Market,  refrigera- 
tion at,  666,  667. 

Receipts  and  Prices  of  Apples  in 
New  York  City,  H.  B.  Knapp, 
927-936. 

monthly  prices  of,  Baldwin,  929. 
Ben  Davis,  931-933. 
Northern  Spy,  931. 
Rhode  Island  Greening,   931. 
Red  bugs,  850,  851. 
Refrigeration,    Various    Methods    of, 
and  Advantage  to  Public,  G.  H. 
McKay,  662-668. 
growth  of  practice,  665. 
methods  of,  662,  664. 
n<>ed  of  additional  plants,  667. 
organization,  value  of,  668. 
result   of,   at  Reading   Terminal 

Market,  665,  667. 
small    plants    for    farmers,    664, 

665. 
Rhode    Island    Greening,    history    of, 

758,  759. 

monthly  prices  for,  931. 
soil  types  for,  771-773. 
Ring  budding,  963. 
Root,  grafting,  959. 

pruning,  840,  841. 
Rosy  apple  aphis,  846. 
Rye  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  791. 


S 

Saddle  grafting,  963. 
St.   Lawrence   Valley,   fruit   growing 

in,  640,  642. 

Scale  insects,  829,  843-845. 
oyster-shell,  844,  845. 
San  Jose,  829,  843,  844. 
scurvy,  845. 

San  Jos4  scale,  829,  843,  844. 
control  methods,  829,  844. 
Scab  disease,  apple,  855-861. 
Schoharie    Valley,    fruit    growing   in, 

642. 
Scion,  for  grafting,  care  of  in  winter, 

957. 

roots     in     dwarf     apple    experi- 
ment, 876,  878. 
union  of  stocks  and,  878,  880. 
Scurvy  scale,  845. 
Seedlings    in    nursery    growing,    654, 

655,  656. 

Selling   on    Commission   and    Buying 
Direct    from    Producers,   J.   II. 
Killough,  906-910. 
buying  from  orchard,  909,  910. 
direct    sales     to    consumer     im- 
practical, 906-908. 
true  function  of  commission  mer- 
chant, 90'8,  909. 

Setting   trees,    systems   of,    818,   819. 
Shot-hole,  fungus  on  cherry,  660. 

made  by  borers,  854. 
Side  worm  injury,  848,  850. 
Sod  mulch,  system  in  orchard,  804. 
vs.  Tillage   for   Apple   Orchards, 
W.  D.  Auchter,  803-810. 
costs  and  returns,  809. 
cultural        experiments, 
805-808. 

results  obtained,  807. 
effects  of  two  methods, 

805,  808,  809. 

Some    of   Our   Most   Common    Apple 
Diseases,  H.  H.  Whetzel  and  L.  R. 
Hesler,  855-870. 
Sooty   blotch   disease   of  apple,   869, 

870. 

Soil,  general  requirements  as  to,  769- 
771. 


980 


INDEX 


Soil  Types,  for  Varieties  of  Apples, 

H.  J.  Wilder,  769-775. 
Baldwin,  773. 
Ben  Davis,  775. 
Hubbardston,  774. 
Mclntosh,  774. 
Northern  Spy,  774. 
Oldenburg,  775. 
R.  I.  Greening,  771-773. 
Sutton,  774. 
Twenty-ounce,  775. 
Wagener,  775. 
Wealthy,  775. 
South    America,    shipping   apples   to, 

913,  914. 

Splice  grafting,  957-959. 
Spraying,  for  apple  scab,  860,  861. 
for  codling  moth,  848,  850. 
for  leaf-eating  insects,  852,  854. 
for  plant  lice,  846. 
for  red  bugs,  851. 
for  San  Jose  scale,  844. 
old  orchards,  828,  829. 
young  orchards,  821-823. 
Square  system  of  setting  trees,  818. 
Standard  grades  for  apples,  670,  671, 

674,  675. 
State  Fair,  Fruit  Exhibits  at',  History 

of,  H.  B.  Knapp,  694-705. 
Statistics,  apple,  965,   966. 

nursery,  648-650. 
Stippin  disease  of  apple,  863-867. 
Stocks,  dwarfing,  experiments  relative 

to,  874-888. 
Stone,     inadvisability     of     using     in 

orchards,  770. 
Storage,  branding  of  apples  in,  673, 

677. 
Suckering  habit'  of  dwarf  stock,  882, 

888. 
Surface  rooting  of  dwarf  stock,   880, 

882. 
Sutton  apple,  soils  adapted  to,  774. 


Tent  caterpillar,  apple,  851,  852,  854. 
Thinning,  method  of,  834-837. 
Thirty-six  point  Gothic  type,  sample 
of,  676. 


Tillage,  W.  H.  Chandler,  776-784. 

cost   of,   in   Auchter   experiment, 

891,    892. 

cultivation   of   young  trees,    781. 
in  renovating  old  orchards,  784. 
kinds  of  cover  crops,  777,  778. 
of  bearing  orchards,  782,  783. 
of  young  orchard,  781,  782. 
proper  time  for,  776. 
relation    of,    to    winter    injury, 

778-781. 

system  in  orchard,  804,  805. 
Sod      Mulch      vs.,      for      Apple 
Orchards,  W.  D.  Auchter,  803- 
810. 
Tolerance      allowance      in      grading 

apples,  672,  677. 
Tompkins  King  apple,  history  of,  758. 

soils  adapted  to,  774,  775. 
Tongue  grafting,  957-959. 
Tools  for  pruning,  841. 
Top  grafting,  957-959. 
Topping  evaporator,  940. 
Tower  evaporator,  942-946. 
Train,   Apple   Packing,   F.   S.   Wel^.i, 

679-683. 
Tree,  apple,  first  in  America,  744. 

surgery,  839,  840. 
Trees,    Physical    Injuries    to,    B.    D. 

Ven  Buren,  963,  964. 
setting,  systems  of,  818,  819. 
Young,    Care    of,    W.    Hotaling, 

816-823. 
cultivation,  820. 
fall   versus    spring  planting, 

820. 

laying  out  orchard,  816-819. 
distance    between    trees, 

817. 
pruning  at  time  of  setting, 

819. 

spraying,  821-823. 
systems  of  setting,  818,  819. 
True  red  bug,  850,  851. 
Turnips  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  778, 

791. 
Twenty-ounce   apple,   soils   suited  to, 

775. 
susceptibility    of,    to    apple-tree 

canker,  863. 
Two-kiln  type  evaporators,   946-951. 


INDEX 


981 


U 

Ungraded   apples,    branding    of,    671, 

675,  676. 
United    St;i  (<•.-,    apple    grading    law, 

677,  678. 

exports   of   apples    from   Canada 
and,  934-936. 


^an    Alstyne,    E.,    Exhibit    of    New 
York    Fruit  at  Columbian  Ex- 
position, 706,  707. 
Pruning,  830-841. 
Van    Buren,    B.    D.,    Apple    Grading 

Law,  f)(>9-<)79. 
Physical   Injuries   to  Trees,   963, 

964. 

Various  Methods  of  Refrigeration 
and  Its  Advantage  to  Public,  G.  H. 
McKay,  662-668. 

Velie,  W.  Y.,  Hudson  River  Fruit  Ex- 
change, 731-740. 

trh  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  778, 
790,  791. 

W 
Wagener    apple,    soils    desirable    for, 

775. 

Water  sprouts  on  trees,  827,  831,  838. 
Wealthy    apple,    monument    to,    759, 

760. 

soils  adapted  to,  775. 
Wax,  grafting,  901. 
Wedge  grafting,  957,  959,  960. 


Welsh,   F.   S.,  Apple   Packing   Train, 

679-683. 
Central  Packing  Houses  for  New 

York   Fruit,  895-905. 
Western  New   York   apple   belt,   643, 

644. 
Western     New     York     Horticultural 

Society,  J.  Hall,  717-726. 
early  history  of,  717-723. 
membership  fees,  726. 
object  of,  726. 
present  officers  of,  726. 
presidents,  723. 
Western    Plateau,    fruit   growing   on, 

645,  762-765. 

Wheat  as  cover  crop  in  orchard,  791. 

Whetzel,  H.   H.,   Some  of  Our  Most 

Common    Apple   Diseases   (with   L. 

R.  Hesler),  855-870. 

Wilder,      H.     J.,     Soil     Types     for 

Varieties  of  Apples,  769-775. 
Wilson,  C.  S.,  Introduction  of  Apple 
Into  America  and  New  York  State, 
743-760. 

Winter    injury,    in    dwarf   apple    ex- 
periment, 880. 

relation  of,  to  tillage,  778-781. 
Wooly  aphis  in  nurseries,  651. 
Worm,  apple,  846-850. 


Young  Trees,  Care  of,  W.  Hotaling, 
816,  823. 

Z 
Zimmerman  evaporator,  942. 


Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin 

Published  monthly  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  State  of  New  York 

Entered  as  second-class  matter  March  2,  1911,  at  the  post  office  at  Albamy,  N.  Y., 
under  the  Act  of  June  6,  1900 


ALBANY,  N.  Y.  .RY,  1016 


Bulletin  79 
(Part  U) 


The  Fruit  Industry  *'n  New  York  State 


Part  I  treats  of  the  fruit  industry  of  the  state  in  all  its  phases,  followed  by 
detailed  information  relative  to  the  apple 


Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Farmers'  Institutes  and  Compiled  under  the 
Supervision  of  the  Director 


STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

CHARLES   S.  WILSON,  Commissioner 


Bulletin  79 

0>art  II) 


The  Fruit  Industry  in  New   York   State 


Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Farmers'  Institutes  and  Compiled  under  the 
Supervision  of  the  Director 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

The  Fear 989 

Varieties  of  Pears  for  Eastern  New  York,  J.  R.  Cornell 991 

Varieties  of  Pears  for  Western  New  York,  Ira  Pease 1000 

Cultural  Methods  for  Pears,  Ira  Pease 1007 

Pruning  Pear  Trees,  Arthur  Farrand 1015 

Some  Insects  Attacking  the  Pear,  and  Their  Control,  P.  J.  Parrott.  .  1010 

Diseases  of  Pears,  M.  F.  Barrus 1039 

Packing  and  Marketing  Pears,  Arthur  Farrand 1052 

Statistics 1056 

The  Peach  1059 

Peaches  in  Eastern  New  York,  P.  L.  Huested 1061 

Peaches  in  Western  New  York,  E.  H.  Anderson 1069 

Cultural  Methods  for  the  Peach,  and  Marketing,  A.  T.  Henry 1077 

Pruning  the  Peach,  M.  A.  Blake 1084 

Insects  and  Diseases  of  the  Peach,  L.  F.  Strickland 1094 

Packing  and  Marketing  the  Peach,  A.  G.  Gulley 1116 

Statistics 1118 

The  Cherry  1121 

Varieties  of  Cherries,  U.  P.  Hedrick 1123 

Cultural  Methods  in  Growing  the  Cherry,  W.  L.  McKay. .  .  .«, 1135 

Cherry  Insects,  C.  R.  Crosby 1143 

Diseases  of  the  Cherry,  L.  R.  Healer 77 1150 

Marketing  Cherries,  C.  K.  Scoon 1152 

Statistics  1156 

The  Plum  and  Prune 1159 

Varieties  of  Plums,  U.  P.  Hedrick 1161 

Cultural  Methods  and  Pruning  for  Plums  and  Primes,  G.  H.  Howe  1172 

The  Common  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Plum,  F.  H.  Lathrop 1183 

Diseases  of  the  Plum,  L.  R.  Hesler 1190 

Marketing  Plums  and  Prunes,  G.  H.  Howe 1200 

Statistics 1204 

The  Quince  1207 

Quinces,  H.  L.  Brown  1209 

Statistics  1214 

The  Grape  1217 

A  Look  Backward  on  the  Grape,  L.  H.  Bailey 1219 

Varieties  of  Grapes,  U.  P.  Hedrick 1228 

Grape-growing  Sections  of  New  York,  F.  E.  Gladwin 1238 

The  New  York  Wine  Industry,  L.  J.  Vance 1246 

The  Grape  Juice  Industry,  Gerald  Frey 1268 

Cultural  Methods  for  the  Grape  in  New  York,  F.  E.  Gladwin 1272 

[981] 


982  CONTENTS 

The  Grape  ( Continued) :  PAGE 

Control  of  Insects  Injurious  to  the  Grape,  F.  Z  Hartzell 1296 

Diseases  of  Grapes,  Donald  Reddick 1314 

Production  and  Marketing  of  Grapes  in  the  Chautauqua  Belt,  S.  J. 

Lowell 1322 

Hybrid  Grapes  at  Geneva,  R.  D.  Anthony 1331 

Statistics     13-39 

The   Strawberry 1341 

Strawberries,  William  Palmer 1343 

Statistics    1348 

The   Raspberry    1351 

Raspberries,  O.  M.  Taylor 1353 

Red  Raspberries    1353 

Black   Raspberries    1360 

Purple  Raspberries    1366 

Statistics    1367 

The  Blackberry  and  Dewberry   1369 

Blackberries  and  Dewberries,  O.  M.  Taylor   1371 

The   Currant    1379 

Currants,  O.  M.  Taylor 1381 

The    Gooseberry    1389 

Goseberries,  O.  M.  Taylor 1391 

Statistics  of  Small  Fruits   1397 

Fruits  in  the  Home   1399 

The  Dietetic  Value  of  Fruit,  I.  S.  Harrington 1401 

Index  .                                  .  1419 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Fig.  286.  Kieft'er   Pears,   Showing  Desirable  Size 991 

Fig.  287.  Bartlett   Pears    992 

Fig.  288.   Yount  Kieffer  Orchard  on  Farm  of  L.  L.  Morrell 994 

Fig.  289.  Beurre   Bosc   Pear 995 

Fig.  290.  Anjou  Pear    998 

Fig.  291.  Clapp's   Favorite   Pear 1000 

Fig.  292.  Branch  of  Seckel  Pears    1002 

Fig.  293.  Packing  Barletts    1003 

Fig.  294.  Kieffer  Trees  on  Farm  of  L.  L.  Morrell 1004 

Fig.  295.  Winter   ^elis   Pear    1006 

Fig.  296.  Sutton  Beauty  Orchard  on  Farm  of  L.  L.  Morrell 1008 

Fig.  297.  Drawing  to  Table  —  Orchard  of  Ira  Pease 1010 

Fig.  298.  Boxed  Bartletts  from  Orchard  of  Ira  Pease 1012 

Fig.  299.  Bartlett  Pear  Orchard  Pruned  to  Carry  a  Large  Burden  of 

Fruit  —  Farm  of   Arthur   Farrand 1014 

Fig.  300.  Wheel  Ladder  for  Pruning  Trees  or  Picking  Fruit 1016 

Fig.  301.  The  Sinuate  Borer    1020 

Fig.  302.  The  Round-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer 1021 

Fig.  303.  Common  Scale  Insects    1023 

Fig.  304.  The  Codling  Moth  and  Its  Work  on  Apple rrr 1025 

Fig.  305.  The  False  Tarnished  Plant  Bug 1026 

Fig.  306.  Pears  Injured  by  the  False  Tarnished  Plant  Bug 1027 

Fig.  307.  The  Pear  Midge  and  Young  Pears  Deformed  by  Larvae 1028 

Fig.  308.  The  Pear  Thrips ;   Adult    1028 

Fig.  309.  The  Pear  Thrips;   Eggs    1029 

Fig.  310.  The  Pear  Thrips ;   Larvae 1029 

Fig.  311.  Blighting  of  Blossom  Clusters  Due  to  Work  of  Thrips 1030 

Fig.  312.  The  Plum  Curculio  and  Its  Work  on  Young  Pears 1031 

Fig.  313.  The  Green  Fruit  Worm  and  lits  Work 1034 

Fig.  314.  The  Pear   Psylla;    Adult 1035 

Fig.  315.  The  Pear  Psylla;   Eggs . . 1035 

Fig.  316.  The  Pear  Psylla ;    Larva    1036 

Fig.  317.  The  Pear  Slug;  Larva  and  Work  on  Leaf 1037 

Fig.  318.  The  Blister  Mite;  Adult    1037 

Fig.  319.  The  Blister  Mite;  and  Its  Work  on  Leaves   1038 

Fig.  320.  Fire  Blight  Cankers  on  Limb  of  Tree  1040 

Fig.  321.  Twig    Blight 1041 

Fig.  322.  Blossom    Blight    1041 

Fig.  323.  Cankered  Limb  Showing  Exuding  Milky  Drops   1042 

Fig.  324.  Scab  on  Fruit  of  Pear   1048 

[983] 


984  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  325.  Leaf  Spot  on  Pear  1050 

Fig.  326.  Leaf  Blight  on  Quince   1051 

Fig.  327.  Leaf  Blight  on  Fruit  of  Pear 1051 

Fig.  328.  Well-grown  Pears  Ready  to  be  Picked  for  Market 1053 

Fig.  329.   Young  Peaches  Thriving  on  Soil  of  Slate  Rock 1061 

Fig.  330.  Elbertas,    Ungraded 1063 

Fig.  331.  Sixty-Basket  Loads  from  Orchard  to  Packing  House 1064 

Fig.  332.  Small    Trucks   Which    Can    Deliver    Only    Local    Loads   with 

Economy   1066 

Fig.  333.  Truck  Ready  to  Leave  Orchard  of  H.  H.  Brown 1067 

Fig.  334.  Looking  North  from  the  Ridge  Road  in  Niagara  County 1069 

(Peach  Rows  Nearly  One  Mile  Long.) 

Fig.  335.  Trees  Planted  18  Feet  Apart  Nearly  Touch  at  Five  Years. .  . .  1070 

Fig.  336.  One  Tree  from  Orchard  Shown  in  Fig.  335 1072 

Fig.  337.  View  in  a  25-year-old  Peach  Orchard  in  Niagara  County....  1073 

Fig.  338.  An  8-year-old  Peach  Tree  That  Has  Not  Been  Headed  Back .  .  1074 
Fig.  339.  An  8-year-old  Peach  Tree,  Pruned  to  Keep  the  Bearing  Wood 

Low  1075 

Fig.  340.  Nursery  Trees,  Showing  Contrast  of  Vigor 1085 

Fig.  341.  Well-formed,  Compact  One-year-old  Tree  in  the  Orchard 1087 

Fig.  342.  Reeves  Tree  Not  Cut  Back  During  Its  Growth 1088 

Fig.  343.  One-year-old   Tree   Before   Pruning 1089 

Fig.  344.  One-year-old  Tree  After  Pruning 1090 

Fig.  345.  By  Some  Cutting  Back  of  Branches,  More  Compact  Trees  Are 

Formed  , 1091 

Fig.  346.  The  Curculio  and  Its  Work 1095 

Fig.  347.  Work  of  a  Plant  Bug  ' 1096 

Fig.  348.  Work  of  the  Shot-Hole  Borer  1100 

Fig.  349.  Channels  Made  by  the  Shot-Hole  Borer 1101 

Fig.  350.  The  Lesser  Peach  Borer  and  the  Peach-Tree  Borer 1103 

Fig.  351.  Mounding  of  Peach  Trees  to  Check  Borers  and  Prevent  Freez- 
ing   1105 

Fig.  352.  Crown  Gall    1106 

Fig.  353.  Shot-Hole  Effect  on  Peach  Foilage   1108 

Fig.  354.  Brown  Rot  of  the  Peach    1109 

Fig.  355.  Sclerotia  Stage  of  Brown  Rot  on  the  Ground 1110 

Fig.  356.  Frozen    Crotch    1114 

Fig.  357.  Fungused  Stub  Canker   1115 

Fig.  358.  Early  Richmond   Cherry    *  . . .  1124 

Fig.  359.  Montmorency    Cherry    1126 

Fig.  360.  English  Morello  Cherry   1128 

Fig.  361.  Schmidt  Cherry   1130 

Fig.  362.  Windsor  Cherry    1 132 

Fig.  363.  Cherry  Pickers  on  Farm  of  W.  L.  McKay 1136 

Fig.  364.  A  Thirsty  Day  in  the  Orchard 1137 

Fig.  365.  Montmorency  Cherry  Orchard  in  Bloom 1138 

Fig.  366.  Three-Year  Montmorency  Orchard  .on  Farm  of  W.  L.  McKay.  .  1140 
Fig.  367.  Napoleon   Orchard   in   Bloom;    Spraying   Apparatus   in   Fore- 
ground   1141 


ILLUSTRATIONS  985 


PAGE 

Fig.  368.  Plum  Curculio  Adult  1143 

Fig.  36!).  Egg-laying  Punctures  of  the  Plum  Curculio  in  Cherries 1144 

Fig.  370.  Cherry  Fruit-Fly  1145 

Fig.  371.  Infested  Cherries  at  About  the  Time  the  Larvae  Leave  Them.  1145 

Fig.  372.  Cherry  leaves  Curled  by  Aphis 1146 

Fig-  373.  Leaves  Riddled  by  Red  Cherry  Leaf-Beetle 1148 

Fig.  374.  Red  Cherry  Leiif-IWtl^  1149 

I' 'ig.  375.  Powdery  Mildew  on  {Sour  Cherry  Twigs  and  Leaves 1150 

Fig.  376.  Picking  Montmorency  Cherries  in  Orchard  of  W.  L.  McKay..  1153 
Kill.  .'577.  Picking  and  Packing  Cherries  in  Orchard  of  W.  L.  McKay..  1154 

Fig.  378.  Loading  Cherries  for  Canning  Factory 1153 

Fig.  379.  The  Bradshaw  Plum  1162 

Fig.  380.  The  Burbank  Plum  1164 

Fig.  381.  The  German  Prune  1166 

Fig.  382.  The  Lombard  Plum  1168 

Fig.  3S3.  Pond,  French  Damson,  Yellow  Egg,  and  Italian  Prune 1170 

Fig.  384.  Burbank  Unpruned  1174 

Fig.  385.  Burbank  Primed  1175 

Fig.  386.  An  Orchard  of  Burbank  Trees  Showing  the  Low  Vase-formed 

Heads  1177 

Fig.  387.  Bavay  Unpruned  1179 

Fig.  388.  Bavay  Pruned  1181 

Fig.  389.  Young  Plum  Showing  Injury  by  Curculio 1184 

Fig.  390.  San  Jose  Scale  1  ]  85 

Fig.  391.  Work  of  the  Fruit-Tree  Bark  Beetle  on  Plum  Limb 1188 

Fig.  392.  Adult  Lesser  Peach-Tree  Borer 1189 

Fig.  393.  Black  Knot  on  Plum rr.- 1191 

Fig.  394.  Brown  Rot  on  Plum  Fruits  1193 

Fig.  395.  Brown  Rot  Cankers  on  Plum  Twigs 1 194 

Fig.  396.  Leaf  Spot  of  Plum  1196 

Fig.  397.  Plum  Pockets  or  Plum  Bladder  on  the  Fruit 1197 

Fig.  398.  Examining  the  Quinces  1210 

Fig.  399.  A  Quince  Tree  in  Orchard  of  H.  L.  Brown 1211 

Fig.  400.  Sizing  up  the  Crop  .  1212 

Fig.  401.  The  Catawba  Grape  1223 

Fig.  402.  The  Concord  Grape  1225 

Fig.  403.  The  Brighton  Grape  1229 

Fig.  404.  The  Niagara  Grape  1234 

Fig.  405.  The  Worden  Grape  1236 

Fig.  406.  Map  Showing  Location  of  Grape  Districts  in  New  York 1240 

Pig.  407.  Grape  Harvest  in  the  Lake  Keuka  District 1246 

Fig.  408.  Champagne  Maturing  in  Vault  1248 

Fig.  409.  Plant  of  Pleasant  Valley  Wine  Company 1250 

Fig.  410.  Urbana  Wine  Company's  Cellars 1252 

Fig.  411.  Champagne  Vault  of  the  Urbana  Wine  Co.,  Showing  Clearing 

Table 1254 

Fig.  412.  Improved  Hydraulic  Wine  Press  1256 

Fig.  41:5.  Section  of  Press  Room,  Showing  Hydraulic  Presses 1258 

Fig.  414.  Single  Grape  Rack  for  Hydraulic  Wine  Press 1259 


986  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.  415.  Double  Rack  for  Hydraulic  Wine  Press    1259 

Fig.  416.  Washing  Wine  Bottles  by  Machinery 1261 

Fig.  417.  -Bottling  and  Corking  the  New  Champagne 1262 

Fig.  418.  Finishing  and  Final  Corking  of  Champagne 1264 

Fig.  419.  Preparing  Champagne  for   Shipment    1265 

Fig.  420.  A  Hillside  Vineyard    1273 

Fig.  421.  Mammoth  Clover  as  a  Green  Manure  in  the  Vineyard 1274 

Fig.  422    A  Barley  Green  Manure  1278 

Fig.  423.  Harvesting  the  Crop    1281 

Fig.  424.  The  Single-Stem  Kniffen  System  of  Training 1283 

Fig.  425.  The  Two-Stem  Kniffen  System 1284 

Fig.  426.  The   Umbrella  System   1285 

Fig.  427.  The  High  Renewal  Type 1286 

Fig.  428.  Delawares  Trained  to  High  Renewal    1287 

Fig.  429.  Catawbas  Trained  to  High  Renewal 1287 

Fig.  430.  The   Chautauqua  System    1289 

Fig.  431.  Early  Summer  Tillage 1290 

Fig.  432.  Horse-hoeing  Away  from  the  Vines   1291 

Fig.  433.  The  Diamond-Tooth  Cultivator,  a  Good  Weed  Eradicator 1292 

Fig.  434.  Mammoth  Clover  and  Chickweed  Covering  the  Vineyard 1294 

Fig.  435.  Loading  the  Grapes  for  Transfer  to  Packing  Shed 1295 

Fig.  436.  Injury  to  Roots  of  Grape  by  Larvae  of  Grape  Root-Worm..  .  1297 

Fig.  437.  Larva  of  Grape  Root- Worm    1298 

Fig.  438.  Adult  of  Grape  Root-Worm 1298 

Fig.  439.  Feeding  by  Adults  of  the  Grape  Root- Worm 1299 

Fig.  440.  Result  of  Feeding  by  Adults  of  Grapevine  Flea-Beetle 1300 

Fig.  441.  Eggs  of  Grapevine  Flea-Beetle  on  Grape  Cane 1301 

Fig.  442.  Larvae  of  Grapevine  Flea-Beetle  Feeding  on  Grape  Leaf 1302 

Fig.  443.  Adult  of  Grapevine  Flea-Beetle   1303 

Fig.  444.  Adult  Rose  Chafer  1304 

Fig.  445.  Larva  of  Rose  Chafer    1305 

Fig.  446.  Nymph  of  Grape  Leaf-Hopper  1306 

Fig.  447.  Adult  Grape  Leaf-Hopper    1306 

Fig.  448.  Conditions    Favorable    for    the    Hibernating    of    Grape    Leaf- 
Hopper  : 1307 

Fig.  449.  Injury  to  Fruit  by  Larvae  of  Grape-Berry  Moth 1309 

Fig.  450.  Injury   to    Fruit   by   Larvae    of    Grape-Berry   Moth,    Showing 

Cluster  After  Infested  Fruit  Has  Been  Removed 1310 

Fig.  451.  Larvae    of    First    Brood    of    Grape-Berry    Moth,    Feeding    on 

Exterior  of   Fruit    1311 

Fig.  452.  Larvae  of  the  Grape-Berry  Moth,  Forming  Cocoons 1312 

Fig.  453.  Pupae  of  the  Grape-Berry  Moth   1313 

Pig.  454.  Black  Rot  on  Fruit  of  Niagara 1315 

Fig.  455.  Downy  Mildew  on  Grape  Foliage   1317 

Fig.  456.  Powdery  Mildew  on  Grapes  1318 

Fig.  457.  Powdery  Mildew  on  Grape  Foliage   1319 

Fig.  458.  Dead-Arm  Disease  on  Grapevine 1321 

Fig.  459.  Vines  of  Vitis  Vinifera   1332 


ILLUSTRATIONS  987 

PAGE 

Fig.  460.  Secretary  —  Secured  by   Crossing   Clinton   and   Muscat    Ham- 
burg     1333 

Kig.  461.  The  Vinifera  Vineyard   1334 

Fig.  462.  Muscat  Hamburg  Grape   13^f> 

Fig.  463.  Clinton    Grape    1337 

Fig.  464.  Orchard  of  2.200  Trees  Interplanted  with  Strawberries 1344 

Kig.   4(5.").    Herbert    Red    Raspberry    1354 

Kig.   466.   Cutlibed.    Red    Raspberry    1357 

Kig.  4(57.    Kansas    I'.lack    Raspberry    1361 

Fig.  468.  Gregg  Black   Raspberry    1364 

Fig.   46!).   Snyder     IMarkberry     1372 

Fig.  470.  McDonald    Dewberry    1375 

Fig.  471.  -Red  Cross   Currant    1383 

Kig.  472.  Currants  on  Farm  of  William  Hotaling 1384 

Fig.  473.  Downing  Gooseberry    1392 

Fig.  474.  Industry  Gooseberry    1394 


THE  PEAR 


' the  juicy  pear 

Lies   in   soft  profusion,   scattered  round." 

THOMSON 

[989] 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  EASTERN  NEW  YORK 
J.  R.  CORNELL,  NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. 

Ex-president,  New  York  State  Fruit  Growers'  Association 
The  financial  success  or  failure  of  orchards  of  the  various  tree 
fruits  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  the  selection  of  the  right  or 
wrong  varieties,  as  many  who  have  made  a  poor  selection  or  who 
have  received  misbranded  trees  from  the  nurseryman  have  learned 
to  their  sorrow. 

For  commercial  purposes,  few  varieties  are  needed.  While 
this  statement  will  apply  to  all  orchard  fruits,  it  has  special  force 
in  reference  to  the  pear.  From  many  years'  experience  in  growing 
and  testing  over  fifty  varieties,  I  have  finally  eliminated  all  but 
three —  Bartlett,  Seckel,  and  Bosc.  I  might  mention  here  that 
I  have  grown  the  Kietfer  only  in  a  testing  way ;  while  a  success 
with  me,  the  other  varieties  mentioned  are  more  desirable  from 
every  standpoint.  The  Kieffer  is  in  a  class  by  itself,  as  it  is 
used  exclusively  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  largely  grown  in 
the  Hudson  Valley,  especially  in  the  upper  portion  on  the  warmer 
sandy  soils,  and  is  esteemed  by  some  as  their  profitable  variety. 


FIG.  286.— KTEFFER  PEARS.  THOSE  AT  LEFT  AVERAGE  17  OUNCES,  WHICH 
is  Too  LARGE;  THOSE  AT  RIGHT  AVERAGE  9  OUNCES  —  A  DESIRABLE 
SIZE. 

I  consider  the  following  the  four  best  commercial  varieties  for 
eastern  New  York :  Clapp's,  Bartlett,  Seckel,  and  Bosc.  To  this 
list  might  be  added  Sheldon,  and,  if  a  winter  variety  is  desired, 
Olairgeau  and  Winter  Nelis.  There  is  a  limited  demand  for 
winter  pears,  yet  some  find  them  profitable. 

[9911 


992  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  287. —  BARTLETT  PEAKS 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  EASTERN  NEW  YORK         993 

I  shall  briefly  present  the  strong  and  the  weak  points  of  the 
varieties  mentioned. 

CLAPP'S    FAVORITE 

Clapp's,  or  riapp's  Favorite,  as  it  is  more  frequently  called, 
has  all  the  qualifications  for  a  good  market  variety.  The  fruit, 
being  of  large  size,  handsome  appearance  and  good  quality,  is 
popular  in  the  markets.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  absolutely 
hardy,  and  a  free  and  regular  bearer.  The  fact  that  it  is  the 
first  desirable  variety  to  mature,  being  about  two  weeks  earlier 
than  the  Bartlett,  would  seem  to  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  as 
a  commercial  sort.  The  one  great  drawback  is  blight.  I  know 
of  no  variety  in  which  blight  control  is  more  difficult.  On  well- 
drained  soil,  if  not  overstimulated,  close  attention  may  largely 
overcome  this  trouble. 

BARTLETT 

The  Bartlett  is  preeminently  the  great  commercial  pear,  being 
well  known  and  popular  in  all  the  markets  of  this  country,  as 
well  as  abroad.  Under  good  care  this  variety  succeeds  on  all 
soils,  from  sand  to  clay,  provided  said  soils  are  drained  either 
naturally  or  artificially,  for  it  goes  without  saying  that  no  fruit 
tree  will  thrive  with  wet  feet.  I  am  not  familiar  ;vvith  any  variety 
that  adapts  itself  so  well  to  different  soils,  unless  it  be1  the  Kieffer. 
Given  good  care,  the  Bartlett  is  a  regular  and  profuse  bearer  of 
beautiful  fruit.  In  the  orchard  the  tree  is  a  free  and  upright 
grower,  and  comes  into  bearing  at  an  early  age.  It  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  overbear,  which  should  be  corrected  by  severe  thin- 
ning; otherwise  there  is  a  liability  to  exhaustion  and  dwarfing  of 
the  tree.  The  Bartlett  is  rather  subject  to  blight,  but  yields  more 
readily  to  control  measures  than  does  the  Clapp's.  All  things  con- 
sidered, it  is  the  most  valuable  commercial  pear  we  have  in  eastern 
New  York,  or,  for  that  matter,  in  this  country. 

SECKEL 

In  the  Seckel  we  have  the  standard  of  excellence,  and  few 
indeed  are  the  lovers  of  fruit  who  do  not  appreciate  this  delicious 
pear.  Despite  its  small  size  and  not  very  attractive  appearance, 
it  is  popular  and  in  good  demand  in  the  markets.  Well-grown 
specimens  of  this  variety  command  top  figures,  as  a  rule.  This 


994 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  EASTERN  NEW  YORK         995 

variety  is  grown  to  more  or  less  extent  throughout  the  Hudson 
Valley.  It  is  at  its  best  on  the  warm  silt  loams  and  shales  of  this 
section.  My  experience  is  that  it  does  not  succeed  so  well  on  heavy 
soil  or  clay,  failing  to  be  productive,  and  the  fruit  lacking  in 
style  and  color  under  these  conditions.  The  tree,  while  growing 
somewhat  more  slowly  than  the  Bartlett  at  the  start,  eventually 
makes  a  larger  tree,  although  it  is  later  coming  into  bearing. 
While  not  blight-proof,  it  is  freer  from  the  ravages  of  this  scourge 
than  any  of  the  commercial  varieties.  It  has  a  tendency  to  over- 
load one  year,  being  barren  the  next.  In  this  respect  it  parallels 
the  Baldwin  apple.  A  deficiency  of  foliage  is  sometimes  apparent 
when  climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable. 

BEURRE    BOSC 

The  Bosc  pear,  while  an  old  variety,  is  comparatively  new  as  a 
commercial  sort.     Only  within  the  past  few  years  has  it  assumed 


FIG.  289.—  THE  BEURRE  Bosc  PEAR 


996  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

any  importance  in  the  New  York  market,  but  at  the  present 
time  110  variety  is  in  greater  demand.  Its  large  size  and  fine 
appearance,  in  connection  with  its  superb  quality  —  ranking  well 
up  to  the  Seckel  in  this  respect  —  should  naturally  'commend  it  to 
the  discriminating  buyer. 

The  tree  seems  to  be  difficult  to  grow  in  the  nursery,  and  the 
planter  is  apt  to  be  disappointed  (unless  familiar  with  this 
variety)  when  he  receives  his  stock.  After  it  is  established  in 
the  orchard  it  is  a  free  grower  —  in  fact  it  might  be  termed  a 
rapid  grower.  Its  tendency  to  twist  and  curl  its  limbs  can  be 
corrected  by  judicious  pruning.  It  succeeds  admirably  on  a 
heavy  soil,  although  good  results  are  obtained  on  a  medium  loam. 
Kesults  are  not  satisfactory  on  light  soils.  In  the  orchard  the 
tree  comes  into  bearing  at  an  early  age  and  is  quite  uniformly 
an  annual  bearer.  It  has  the  good  habit  of  thinning  itself  severely, 
being  unique  in  this  respect,  as  I  know  of  110  other  variety  that 
possesses  this  trait.  A  good  quality  that  should  not  be  over- 
looked is  the  tenacity  with  which  the  fruit  clings  to  the  tree, 
being  important  during  a  high  wind. 

I  know  of  but  one  weak  point  with  this  variety,  namely,  blight. 
Blight  is  more  difficult  of  control  on  the  Bosc  than  on  the  Bartlett, 
Bosc  being  in  this  respect  not  much  behind  Clapp's,  especially 
the  young  trees.  Although  this  is  the  only  drawback  to  the  variety, 
still  it  is  a  serious  one. 

SHELDON 

To  a  large  degree,  the  high  quality  of  the  Sheldon  pear  has 
maintained  its  position  as  a  commercial  sort ;  but,  maturing  at 
about  the  same  season  as  the  Bosc,  it  looks  as  though  it  will  eventu- 
ally be  supplanted  by  the  latter  variety.  In  the  orchard  the  tree 
is  a  good,  strong,  upright  grower.  One  of  its  weak  points  com- 
mercially is  the  appearance  of  the  fruit,  which  is  apple-shaped  and 
devoid  of  color;  another  fault  is  that  when  ripe  it  will  not  stand 
up.  However,  for  the  home  collection  this  variety  should  always 
be  included. 

BEURRE    CLAIRGEAU 

The  Clairgeau  comes  in  the  class  of  late  fall  or  early  winter 
•varieties.  I  look  upon  it  as  the  best  commercial  pear  of  its  season. 
While  not  of  high  quality,  when  well  grown  it  is  very  acceptable 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  EASTERN  NEW  YORK         997 

as  a  dessert  fruit.     The  tree  is  everything  that  can  be  desired  — 
a  fine  grower,  having  strong  foliage,   free  from  blight,   and  an 
early  and  profuse  bearer.     It  must  be  thinned  to  prevent  over- 
bearing, also  to  obtain  size  of  fruit.     Specimens  of  this  variety 
sometimes  weigh  a  pound  each. 

The  great  drawback  to  this  variety,  especially  in  a  dry  season, 
is  the  dropping  of  the  fruit.  When  the  fruit  is  near  maturity,  a 
high  wind  is  likely  to  put  the  bulk  of  it  on  the  ground.  This 
necessitates  planting  in  a  sheltered  position.  Market  values,  while 
not  so  good  as  for  the  other  varieties  mentioned,  are  fairly  satis- 
factory. 

WINTER  NELIS 

Winter  Nelis  is  the  only  winter  pear  to  be  considered  in  this 
section  for  market.  It  ranks  among  the  late  varieties  with  the 
Seckel  among  those  of  the  early  fall.  The  tree,  like  the  Bosc, 
is  a  poor  grower  in  the  nursery,  but  makes  good  in  the  orchard. 
Although  a  straggling  grower,  it  is  healthy,  hardy,  and  productive. 

I  have  had  better  pecuniary  results  from  the  autumn  varieties ; 
but,  where  one  has  a  market  for  a  late  pear,  the  Nelis  should  give 
good  satisfaction. 

There  have  been  a  number  of  varieties  recommended  by  the 
nursery  interests  for  commercial  planting.  I  will  mention  only 
two  here,  namely:  Aiijou  and  Worden  Seckel. 


The  Anjou  has  been  planted  rather  extensively  in  years  past  — 
in  fact  it  would  be  somewhat  difficult  to  find  an  orchard  of  mixed 
varieties  where  it  was  omitted.  Despite  its  wide  distribution, 
giving  it  the  advantage  of  various  locations  and  conditions,  it  has 
failed  to  make  good  its  claims  for  commercial  purposes  in  eastern 
New  York. 

I  will  briefly  mention  its  shortcomings  as  I  found  them.  It 
is  very  unreliable  about  bearing.  If  conditions  are  unfavorable 
at  the  blooming  period,  it  will  not  set  fruit  to  any  extent.  It 
suffers  more  from  a  wind  storm-than  any  variety  I  know  of,  Clair- 
geau  not  excepted.  It  is  not  a  good  seller  in  the  market,  its 
thin  skin  and  lack  of  color  being  against  it.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a 


998  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

good  fruit,  and  should  not  be  omitted  in  the  home  collection. 
The  tree  is  a  strong,  vigorous  grower,  and  is  not  excelled  in  this 
respect  by  any  in  the  entire  list. 


FIG.  290. — -THE  ANJOU  PEAR 

WORDEN   SECKEL 

I  must  confess  that  I  have  been  greatly  disappointed  in  the 
failure  of  the  Worden  as  a  market  variety,  while  this  also  is  a 
good  pear,  and  should  be  in  the  home  collection.  It  is  a  fruit  of 
great  beauty,  high  quality,  good  size,  and  certainly  in  the  package 
is  the  showiest  of  all ;  but,  despite  these  facts,  so  far  it  has  failed 
to  meet  the  popular  demand.  Time  may  change  conditions,  but 
commercially  we  can  hardly  afford  the  attempt  to  educate  the 
popular  taste.  This  variety  is  a  good  grower,  and  an  early  and 
profuse  bearer.  It  should  be  severely  thinned  to  have  good  results. 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  EASTERN  NEW  YORK          999 

OTHER    VAKIKTIKS 

The  Cornice  as  it  comes  from  the  Pacific  Coast  is  a  good  com- 
mercial pear,  but  my  experience  with  it  so  far  would  not  justify 
including  it  in  the  list  for  eastern  New  York. 

As  I  stated  in  the  beginning  of  this  article,  three  varieties  are 
all  that  I  should  use  for  a  commercial  orchard;  namely,  Bartlett, 
Scckcl,  and  Bosc,  and  I  esteem  them  all  of  equal  value  for  the 
purpose. 

For  the  home  orchard  a  wide  scope  may  be  given  as  to  varieties. 
The  first  pear  of  any  value  to  ripen  is  the  Doyenne  d'  Ete,  but 
the  first  really  good  one  is  Manning's  Elizabeth,  followed  by  the 
Tyson.  The  Tyson  should  be  included  in  every  list  for  the  home 
orchard.  I  have  yet  to  see  a  pear  tree  that  equals  this  variety  in 
hardiness,  healthfulness,  and  vigor.  If  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
a  blight-proof  pear,  it  is  the  Tyson.  The  tree  grows  .to  a  large 
size  and  produces  abundantly,  and  its  fruit  is  in  season  for  a 
long  period.  While  this  variety  responds  to  good  treatment,  it 
will  stand  more  neglect  than  any  other. 

Lawrence  is  a  desirable  late  fall  pear,  maturing  before  the 
Winter  Nelis.  The  fruit  is  of  high  quality  and  the  tree  is  desir- 
able in  every  respect.  A  most  excellent  variety  for  the  home 
orchard. 

Dana's  Hovey  is  the  highest  quality  of  any  o?  the  late  pears, 
ranking  with  Seckel  in  that  respect.  Despite  its  small  size,  it 
has  a  commercial  standing  in  the  Boston  markets. 

The  list  of  good  pears  is  a  long  one,  and  I  have  endeavored 
to  mention  only  a  few  that  should  prove  satisfactory  to  the  home 
orchard.  There  is  no  reason  why,  with  a  proper  selection  of 
varieties,  this  delicious  fruit  should  not  be  available  over  the 
larger  period  of  the  year. 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  WESTERN  NEW  YORK 
IRA  PEASE,  OSWEGO,  X.  Y. 

In  general,  varieties  of  pears  that  have 
long,  slender  stems  will  hang  on  the  tree 
much  better  than  those  with  short,  thick 
stems ;  also,  trees  with  long,  slender  limbs 
will  hold  the  fruit  better  than  stocky 
trees.  This  is  because  the  trees  and  fruit 
sway  in  wind  instead  of  jerking.  In  a 
commercial  way  this  is  more  important 
with  pears  than  with  apples,  for  there  is 
very  little  market  for  windfall  pears, 
while  there  is  a  good  market  for  windfall  apples. 

In  selecting  varieties,  it  is  also  well  to  consider  whether  they 
are  more  than  ordinarily  subject  to  blight.  I  am  giving  my  own 
experience  with  these  varieties  at  Oswego. 

CLAPP'S    FAVORITE 

Clapp's  Favorite  is  of  best  quality  and  is  very  popular  with  the 
consumer  for  eating  out  of  the  hand.  Fruit  is  large,  luscious, 


FIG.  291. —  CLAPP'S  FAVORITE. 
[1000] 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  WESTERN  NEW  YORK       1001 

handsome  —  yellow  with  red  cheek.  Tree  sprawling  and  rapid 
grower;  bears  young,  annually,  and  abundantly.  This  variety 
takes  blight  more  easily  than  any  other  and  it  will  run  through 
the  tree  more  quickly ;  however,  if  blight  is  checked,  the  tree  will 
recover  quickly  —  all  because  the  tree  makes  such  a  rapid  growth. 
It  is  a  good  variety  for  the  grower  to  gamble  on  —  he  may  make 
well  and  he  may  lose  the  whole  orchard  before  it -comes  to  bearing. 
On  the  whole  it  is  a  very  profitable  pear  to  grow  and  sell  before 
Bartletts.  It  is  generally  considered  too  soft  for  canning. 

BARTLETT 

Bartlett  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  for  amount  of  production 
and  demand,  and  generally  for  profit.  It  is  a  good  bearer  from 
youth  to  old  age,  brings  as  good  a  price  in  the  general  market  as 
any,  and  is  better  known  than  any  other  variety  —  so  well  that 
it  is  in  great  demand  by  the  general  public  as  well  as  by  the  can- 
ners.  Usually,  it  does  not  require  a  great  deal  of  thinning,  al- 
though this  should  receive  attention.  Bartlett  is  not  so  badly 
infested  by  fungus  of  the  fruit  as  are  some  other  varieties.  It  is 
liar  vested  at  a  time  when  we  can  procure  plenty  of  extra  help, 
before  apple  picking  and  the  hurry  of  fall  work.  It  has  one  bad 
trait  —  the  tendency  to  blight  —  which  is  very  serious. 

SECKEL 

The  Seckel  is  very  superior  in  quality  and  bears  well  after  the 
tree  is  mature,  if  in  deep,  fertile  soil.  It  does  not  take  blight  very 
readily  and  blight  runs  slowly  through  the  tree.  Tree  is  well 
shaped  and  ornamental,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  is  late  in  matur- 
ing and  coming  into  bearing.  The  Seckel  is  a  small  pear,  and  for 
that  reason  cost  of  picking  per  bushel  is  double  as  much  as  the 
larger  varieties.  It  requires  more  fertilizer,  more  labor  in  thin- 
ning, more  spraying  for  fungi.  There  is  very  little,  if  any 
demand  for  it  by  canneries,  and  it  is  not  so  well  known  as  Bart- 
lett. My  experience  is  that  Seckel  on  dwarf  stock  is  more  profit- 
able than  standard,  as  the  fruit  is  larger  and  more  easily  picked, 
and  the  tree  comes  into  bearing  much  sooner. 


1002  THE   FRUIT   INDUSTRY    IN    NEW    YORK    STATE 


FIG.  292. —  BRANCH  WELL  LADEN  WITH  SECKEL  PEARS 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  WESTERN  NEW  YORK       1003 


FIG.  293.—  PACKI 


OF  IRA  PEASE,  OSWEGO,  N.  V. 


BUERRE  D  ANJOU  AND  SHELDON 

These  varieties  have  four  traits  in  common:  .fruit  of  excellent 
quality;  they  sell  well  when  well  known;  both  drop  very  easily; 
both  refuse  to  bear  every  year. 

Many  growers  have  trouble  to  make  Anjou  bear  at  all.  It  seems 
to  require  especially  severe  pruning.  Anjou  is  comparatively  free 
from  blight;  Sheldon  blights  worse  than  Anjou,  but  not  so 
badly  as  Olapp's  and  Bartlett.  Anjou  tree  is  a.  large,  strong 
healthy  grower,  somewhat  spreading  in  habit,  while  Sheldon  grows 
up  tall  without  spreading  so  much. 


KIEFFER 


Quality  poor  for  eating  out  of  hand,  but  excellent  for  canning 
or  cooking.  Many  people  who  have  Bartlett  and  KiefTer  prefer  the 
latter  for  canning.  To  me  they  are  no  more  alike  after  being 
cooked  than  peaches  and  Bartletts.  The  fruit  is  large  and  hand- 
some if  well  thinned;  the  trees  are  very  strong  and  rapid  in 
growing,  and  have  long,  flexible  limbs.  Kieffer  has  eight  good 


1004 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


points :  it  grows  quickly ;  has  long,  strong,  flexible  limbs ;  does  not 
take  blight  readily;  bears  young;  bears  every  year;  bears  very 
abundantly;  handsome  fruit;  excellent  for  canning.  The  disad- 
vantages are :  low  price  of  fruit ;  requires  severe  thinning  of  fruit. 


FIG.  294. —  KIEFFER  TREES  ON  FARM  OF  L.  L.  MORRELL,  KINDERHOOK,  N.  Y. 

Up  to  the  time  of  picking  I  have  no  doubt  but  Kieffer  can  be 
produced  for  one-fourth  the  cost  of  other  pears. 


BEURRE  BOSC 


The  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  if  tree  is  well  fertilized, 
of  large  size.  Some  claim  to  have  a  superior  strain  which  grows 
larger  than  the  ordinary  Bosc,  but  I  think  that  if  there  is  a 
difference  it  is  due  to  treatment  and  culture.  It  has  a  russet  skin, 
rich  yellow  when  ripe ;  long  stem ;  tree  has  long,  drooping  branches 
and  requires  top-working;  not  a  very  strong  grower;  does  not 
blight  so  badly  as  Bartlett;  bears  every  year  and  abundantly. 
Fruit  ripens  in  October  and  sells  for  highest  prices,  making  Bosc 
a  very  profitable  variety  for  the  large  orchardist.  Planting  near 
another  variety  may  be  necessary  to  fertilize  the  blossoms. 


VARIETIES  OF  PEARS  FOR  WESTERN  NEW  YORK       1005 

BEURRE  CLAIRGEAU 

Clairgeau  is  a  large,  handsome,  late  pear  of  very  poor  quality, 
inclined  to  be  knotty  and  corky  in  flesh.  It  has  a  short,  thick 
nk'iii  and  drops  badly.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower  and  does  not 
blight  badly.  I  should  not  recommend  it  for  profit.  An  honest 
man  would  not  want  to  market  this  pear,  for  it  deceives  the 
consumer. 

LOUISE  BONNE  DE  JERSEY 

This  is  an  excellent  autumn  pear,  keeping  into  winter.  Fruit 
of  best  quality ;  russet,  yellow,  red  cheek ;  medium  size.  It  bears 
well  on  dwarf  stock. 


The  fruit  is  large,  coarse-grained,  not  best  flavor,  and  sells  for 
low  price  in  general  market.  It  is  usually  grown  on  dwarf  trees. 
It  has  been  a  money  maker  where  produced  in  large  quantities  in 
western  New  York,  but  has  not  been  a  success  with  me. 

WINTER  NELIS 

Nelis  is  a  medium-sized,  green  russet,  winter  pear  of  best 
quality.  It  has  a  long  stem  and  hangs  on  tree  well.  The  fruit  is 
not  very  handsome,  but  looks  good  to  those  who  know  the  quality. 
Probably  it  is  not  so  profitable  to  grow  as  some  varieties,  but  for 
best  prices  should  be  sent  to  a  special  market  where  known. 

WORDEN  SECKEL 

This  variety  is  much  larger  than  Seckel ;  not  so  sound,  but  much 
handsomer.  Color,  yellow-brown  with  red  cheek.  Stem  longer 
than  Seckel;  hangs  well  to  tree.  Quality  not  so  good,  being  a 
little  softer.  Fruit  inclined  to  crack.  It  is  an  excellent  variety, 
but  as  yet  not  much  known  in  a  commercial  way. 

FOUR  ADDITIONAL  VARIETIES 

The  four  following  varieties  are  barely  worth  trying: 
Tyson.     Medium  to  small;  rather  soft;  sweet,  but  not  much 
flavor.     Tree  vigorous. 


1006  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  295. — •  WINTER  NELIS  PEAR 

Flemish  Beauty.  Large,  round,  green,  with  red  cheek;  yellow 
when  ripe.  Rather  coarse  grain ;  fair  quality ;  fruit  cracks,  and  is 
badly  troubled  with  fungus.  Perhaps  if  sprayed  a  great  many 
times  it  might  be  kept  clean,  but  it  does  not  bring  high  prices.  It 
produces  enormously.  The  tree  is  a  rapid,  large  grower  and 
blights  very  badly. 

Vermont  Beauty.  Medium  size;  green  and  yellow  with  bright 
red  cheek ;  very  glossy  as  if  varnished ;  sweet,  but  not  very  much 
flavor:  rather  soft.  Much  inclined  to  overbear  and  needs  severe 
thinning ;  hangs  to  tree  well ;  blights  somewhat  easily. 

Lawrence.  Medium  size;  bright  green,  yellowing  when  ripe; 
only  fair  flavor.  It  is  a  winter  variety  and  bears  well,  but  sells 
at  low  price  in  general  market. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  PEARS 

IRA  PEASE,  OSWEGO,  N.  Y. 

A  pear  orchard  set  on  a  hill  or  a  sidehill  where  drainage  is 
good,  sloping  toward  a  body  of  water,  is  preferable.  No  slope 
should  he  so  steep  as  to  make  spraying  impracticable.  Lowlands 
should  be  avoided,  and  a  southern  slope  is  not  so  good  as  some 
other,  because  buds  start  too  soon  in  the  spring.  The  land  should 
be  well  and  deeply  underdrained. 

WELL-MATURED    TREES   AND   DISTANCE    OF    PLANTING 

The  trees  should  have  good  roots  and  well-matured  tops.  Trees 
with  soft,  green  tops,  though  they  may  be  large,  should  be  avoided. 

Standard  pear  trees  should  be  set  not  less  than  twenty  feet  apart. 
Seckel,  Anjou,  Flemish  Beauty,  Kieffer,  and  other  large-growing 
varieties  may  be  set  at  greater  distance  with  profit.  Trees  that 
are  not  very  much  subject  to  blight  will  usually  attain  a  larger 
size  than  those  that  are.  Of  course  dwarf  trees  may  be  set  nearer 
together,  but  trees  on  dwarf  stock  often  throw  out  roots  from  the 
pear  part  of  the  tree  above  the  union  and  become  standard  trees 
and  grow  to  full  size. 

CARE   IN   SETTING 

In  setting  trees,  care  should  be  exercised  to  pack  the  earth  under 
the  roots,  as  well  as  on  all  sides  and  on  top.  After  thoroughly 
packing  the  earth,  throw  on  the  surface  an  inch  or  two  of  loose 
earth  for  a  mulch  to  retain  the  moisture.  Water  may  be  applied 
if  very  dry,  but  mulching  with  earth  should  follow  the  watering. 
In  order  to  get  a  good  growth,  the  trees  should  start  at  once  after 
being  set.  This  refers  to  spring  setting. 

Cut  off  all  the  branches  which  are  less  than  three  feet  from  the 
ground  when  setting.  With  Bartletts,  Clapp's,  and  Sheldons,  or 
any  variety  inclined  to  shoot  up  tall  and  slender,  shorten  the 
remaining  branches.  Seckel,  Anjou,  and  varieties  that  make  a 
round,  stocky  head  should  be  trimmed  to  a  whip ;  that  is,  all  side 
branches  should  be  taken  off. 

[1007] 


1008 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  XEW  YORK  STATE 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  PEARS  1009 

PRUNING 

After  the  first  year,  prune  very  little  —  only  for  shaping  the 
tree  a  trifle  or  to  remove  blight.  .Much  pruning  will  retard  coming 
into  bearing.  All  sprouts  and  suckers  on  the  trunk  and  large 
limbs  should  be  removed  promptly  when  they  first  appear,  so 
that  if  blight  strikes  the  tree  it  will  not  be  carried  into  those 
parts.  If  the  smaller  limbs  blight  they  may  be  removed  without 
so  much  loss  to  the  tree. 

When  an  orchard  is  in  full  bearing  it  usually  requires  some 
thinning  of  the  branches  to  admit  light  and  produce  larger  and 
better  fruit.  Some  va  rieties  —  for  instance,  Anjou  and  Kieffer  — 
require  especially  severe  pruning.  Anjou  needs  pruning  to  make 
it  bear  heavily,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
fruit.  Some  orchardists  practice  cutting  their  Kieffers  as  severely 
as  tli<'\  do  their  grape  vines,  taking  off  nearly  all  the  new  growth 
each  year. 

When  an  orchard  is  very  old  and  the  limbs  have  become  brittle, 
it  is  well  to  renew  by  cutting  off  some  of  the  old  limbs  and  allow- 
ing new  shoots  to  make  the  tree. 

INTERCROPPING 

It  is  not  profitable  to  grow  pears  and  grass  or  grain  on  the  same 
ground.  Other  crops  may  be  grown  if  cultivated,  though  the 
digging  of  potatoes  in  the  early  fall  wrill  sometimes  start  a  late, 
soft  growth,  which  is  more  liable  to  winterkill  or  to  be  affected 
with  blight  the  next  season.  When  the  trees  are  nearly  large 
enough  to  cover  the  ground,  it  is  not  usually  profitable  to  plant 
other  crops  among  them.  The  ground  should  be  plowed  and  har- 
rowed in  the  early  spring,  and  cultivation  continued  until  the 
cover  crop  is  put  on. 

COVER  CROPS 

A  cover  crop  is  quite  important  to  save  fertility  and  check  an 
excessive  late  fall  growth  of  the  trees.  Weeds  will  do  for  a  cover 
crop,  although  after  good  summer  cultivation  they  are  usually 
not  thick  enough  unless  sown.  Vetch,  barley,  clover  and  turnip 
is  a  good  combination,  if  it  will  catch  and  grow.  Rye  and  vetch 


1010 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


CULTURAL  METHODS  IOK-  PKAKS  1011 

is  surer  to  grow,  and  givos  more  humus.  Vetch  and  turnip  will 
ivsrnl  themselves  from  year  to  year  if  a  few  plants  are  allowed 
to  grow. 

PEAR   BLIGHT 

Blight  spreads  much  faster  when  the  trees  are  growing  rapidly 
and  the  tips  are  very  green  and  soft.  For  this  reason,  if  there 
was  an  abundance  of  rain  and  the  trees  are  growing  fast  in  Junei, 
I  would  sow  the  cover  crop  and  stop  cultivation,  in  order  to  retard 
the  growth  and  help  check  the  blighj;.  ,_  Ordinarily,  however,  if  the 
trees  carry  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit,  or  if  the  weather  is  very  dry,  it 
would  be  better  to  cultivate  as  late  as  the  latter  part  of  July  or 
into  August. 

So  far  as  I  know,  nothing  new  has  been  learned  of  blight  for 
the  past  five  years.  For  cause  and  treatment  read  Cornell  Bulle- 
tin Xo.  272  on  blight  of  pears.*  Many  may  think  such  treatment 
is  not  practical,  but  I  believe  that  I  have  kept  blight  in 
check  and  that  it  pays  well.  Certainly,  in  a  young  orchard 
where  the  branches  may  be  easily  reached,  I  should  follow  this 
treatment,  inspecting  and  cutting  very  thoroughly  during  the  grow-  . 
ing  season. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  see  all  the  blight  in  a  tree  in  passing,  on 
account  of  the  shadows,  but  if  one  inspects  a  certain  part  of  the 
orchard  in  the  forenoon,  and  at  the  next  inspection  visits  these 
trees  in  the  afternoon,  his  work  will  probably  be  much  more 
il"  Tuiio'h,  for  he  will  have  light  in  the  afternoon  where  there. was 
shadow  in  the  forenoon. 

INSECT  ENEMIES 

Tf  the  trees  have  San  Jose  scale,  use  a  strong  solution  of  lime-v 
sulphur  when  trees  are  dormant.     For  codling  moth,  use  arsenate"" 
of  lead  after  the  blossoms  fall.     For  fungous  troubles  it  is  better 
to  combine  arsenate  of  lead  with  bordeaux  than  with  lime-sulphur. 

T  do  not  as  yet  know  how  to  treat  pear  psylla  effectively,  f  We 
have  used  the  methods  recommended  by  the  Geneva  Station  and 
they  admit  we  were  thorough.  We  sprayed  early  in  the  spring 


*  See  article  on  page  1039,  by  Professor  M.  F.  Barrus. 

t  See  article  on  pear  insects  by  Professor  P.  J.  Parrott,  page  1019. 

2 


1012  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


MKTIIODS  FOR  PEARS  1013 


with  nicotine  to  kill  the  old  flies,  and  again  with  full  scale  strength 
lime-sulphur  after  the  blossom  buds  had  separated  to  kill  the  eggs. 
\Ve  killed  ;i  large  pen-outage  of  both  flies  and  eggs.  After  the 
nymphs  were  hatched  wo  sprayed  again  with  nicotine,  but  still 
wo  had  a  great  many  psylla.  AVo  killed  many  of  the  blossoms  and 
seriously  reduced  the  crop  of  pears  with  the  lime-sulphur  spray. 
Two  of  my  neighbors  had  nearly  the  same  experience.  The  psylla 
is  our  worst  pest. 


1014 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  TX  XEW  YORK   STATE 


PRUNING   PEAR   TREES 
ARTHUR  FARRAND,  "  THE  PINES,"  HUDSON,  N".  Y. 

I  I  XDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES 

There  is  nothing  more  important  in  the 
growing  of  pears  than  the  proper  pruning 
of  the  trees,  and  if  they  are  not  thus 

;      ;  .  pruned  one  cannot  expect  to  secure  a  fine 

;",/  quality  of  fruit.     From  my  observations, 

V;  this  important  matter  has  been  greatly 

.'Pfcp^  neglected ;  however,  more  attention  is  now 

^^ap/v    ^jfl|  being  given   each  year  to  the  care  and 

^  ^P  pruning  of  pear  trees,  and  the  results  are 

~~         ~'"~  apparent  by  the  large  size  and  fine  quality 

of  pears  that  are  grown. 

It  is  well,  however,  to  remember  that  pear  trees  do  not  require 
so  much  pruning  as  many  other  varieties  of  fruit  trees,  because 
they  are  more  naturally  of  dwarf  habit.  The  spurs  of  pear  wood 
bear  the  fruit,  and  little  or  no  pruning  is  necessary  after  they 
develop. 

PRUNING  FOR  A  PURPOSE 

However,  there  are  a  great  many  orchards  that  have  not  been 
pruned  for  years,  where  careful  pruning  should  be  done,  avoiding 
the  removal  of  too  much  wood  from  the  trees  the  first  year,  as  it 
would  be  so  much  of  a  strain  on  their  vitality  as  to  make  them 
very  susceptible  to  disease. 

Most  fruit  growers  know  that  pruning  is  done  to  remove  dead 
wood,  to  take  out  crossing  branches,  to  shape  the  tree  well,  'or  to 
insure  better  fruit.  Tree  butchers  have  prejudiced  the  amateur, 
but  intelligent  and  proper  pruning  may  be  done  by  anyone  who 
will  pay  strict  attention  to  a  few  simple  principles,  at  the  same 
time  using  common  sense. 

All  dead  wood  and  useless  branches  should  be  cut  out  of  the 
tree  first.  When  the  growth  of  one  branch  will  injure  another  by 
rubbing  or  crowding  it,  sacrifice  the  weaker  branch.  Shoots 

[1015] 


1016 


THE  FECIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


which  grow  on  the  inside  surfaces  of  the  main  branches,  and  also 
on  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  should  be  removed.  These  are  commonly 
called  suckers,  and  they  absorb  much  of  the  life  blood  of  the  tree 
that  would  otherwise  go  into  the  fruit-bearing  wood.  • 


FIG.  300. —  WHEEL  LADDER  FOR  PRUNING  TREES   OR  PICKING   FRUIT,  USED  BY 
L.  L.  MORRELL,  KINDERHOOK,  N.  Y. 


PRUNING  PEAR  TREES  1017 

WINTER  PRUNING  PREFERABLE 

We  prefer  late  winter  rather  than  autumn  for  such  work, 
because  the  trees  are  then  dormant,  and  also  because  a  severe 
winter  will  often  kill  back  the  branches  below  the  cut,  thus  involv- 
ing a  repetition  of  the  work.  Prunning  should  never  be  done  in 
frcc/inir  weather,  nor  should  it  be  left  until  the  sap  has  swelled  the 
buds,  as  in  either  case  a  serious  loss  of  vitality  will  result. 

METHODS 

When  pruning  involves  the  removal  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
annual  growth,  which  is  quite  necessary  in  the  Kieffers,  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  the  cut  should  be  ma<Je  immediately  above  a 
bud :  if  m  a  do  below  or  between  buds,  that  portion  left  very  often 
dies  back  to  the  bud,  leaving  a  decaying  stem  which  may  prove  a 
direct  injury. 

It  is  also  a  good  plan  in  removing  large  branches  to  cut  twice, 
making  the  first  cut  at  least  a  foot  above  the  point  selected,  to  pre- 
vent the  wood  from  splitting  down  and  tearing  off  the  bark. 
After  the  first  cut  has  been- made  and  the  weight  of  the  branch 
removed,  a  second  cut  is  made,  holding  the  stub  until  the  cut  is 
completed ;  this  prevents  the  splitting  and  tearing  off  of  the  bark 
which  is  likely  to  result  from  careless  removal  of  large  branches. 
All  wounds  should  be  left  smooth,  as  the  healing  process  will 
start  much  more  quickly  than  if  a  jagged  surface  is  left. 

PROTECTING    WOUNDS 

Many  fruit  growers  and  tree  surgeons  paint  the  exposed  sur- 
faces of  a  tree  or  a  limb  after  pruning  with  tar,  white  lead,  shellac, 
or  ordinary  paint ;  although  many  practical  tree  men  use  no  cover- 
inir  whatever.  We  have  had  excellent  results  from  both  systems. 

PRUNING   FOR  BLIGHT 

It  is  well  known  that  pear  trees  are  subject  to  blight,  and  when 
it  is  discovered  no  time  should  be  lost  in  cutting  out  the  diseased 
wood,  at  least  eight  inches  below  the  infected  part.  All  infected 
branches  and  twigs  should  be  immediately  gathered  and  burned, 


1018  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

and  the  wound  of  the  tree  disinfected  with  a  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate.  Each  tablet  contains  the  requisite  amount  when  added 
to  a  pint"  of  water,  to  make  a  solution  1-1,000,  which  is  the 
strength  we  have  used  for  years,  and  which  has  always  been 
effective. 

It  is  also  important  to  disinfect  with  above  solution  the  tools 
strength  we  have  used  for  years,  and  which  has  always  been 
effective. 


SOME  INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR 

CONTROL 

P.  ,}.   PARROTT 
Entomologist  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  X.  Y. 

The  pear  is  subject  to  attack  by  many 
of  the  insects  that  are  injurious  to  the 
apple.  As  is  characteristic  of  all  fruits, 
however,  there  are  certain  pests  peculiar 
to  it  or  to  which  it  displays  an  unusual 
degree  of  susceptibility  —  as  the  pear 
psylla,  the  sinuate  borer,  or  the  pear 
thrips.  The  more  injurious  species  to  be 
considered  in  the  upkeep  of  a  pear 
orchard  may  be  classified  in  the  following 
order : 

Insects  attacking  the  trunk  and  branches. —  Sinuate  borer, 
round-headed  borer,  flat-headed  borer. 

Insects  incrusting  the  bark.  San  Jose  scale,  oyster-shell  scale, 
scurfy  scale. 

Insects  attacking  the  blossom  buds  and  fruit. — --Codling  moth, 
false  tarnished  plant  bug,  pear  midge,  pear  thrips,  plum  curculio. 
bud  moth,  leaf  rollers,  green  fruit  worms. 

Insects  attacking  the  foliage. —  Pear  psylla,  pear  slug,  blister 
mite. 

INSECTS  THAT  ATTACK  THE  TRUNK  AND  BRANCHES 

The  Sinuate  Borer 

The  sinuate  borer,  Agrilus  sinuatus  Olivier,  which  is  of  Eu- 
ropean origin,  appears  to  be  confined  to  five  or  six  fruit-growing 
counties  contiguous  to  the  Hudson  River  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  state.  Its  ravages  have  been  of  such  a  character  that  it 
has  almost  discouraged  the  planting  of  pears,  and  it  now  promises 
to  exterminate  the  orchards  that  were  established  before  its  ap- 
pearance in  that  region.  The  adult  insect  is  a  small  copper-col- 
ored beetle  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long.  It  makes  its  appear- 
ance during  the  forepart  of  June  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  depres- 
sions or  crevices  in  the  bark  of  the  trunk  or  branches.  Upon 

[1019] 


1020  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  301. —  THE  SINUATE  BORER:    (1)  WORK  OF  BORER  IN  BARK; 
(2)  ADULT;   (3)  LARVA 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL     1021 


hatching,  which  occurs  about  the  first  of  July,  the  young  larva 
burrows  directly  from  the  egg  to  the  sapwood,  where  it  cuts  an 
irregular  serpentine  mine  that  is  very  characteristic  and  easily 
distinguishable  from  the  work  of  other  borers  attacking  pear  trees. 
The  in  nl ling  of  the  bark  kills  the  trees  or  weakens  them  so  that 
they  lapse  into  a  languishing  state  and  become  unproductive. 

'/'rrd/mciil.  Wood-boring  insects  are  generally  difficult  pests  to 
combat,  and  this  beetle  in  particular  presents  a  series  of  difficul- 
ties not  usually  encountered  in  a  single  species.  For  small  trees 
perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  to  cut  into  the 
mine  of  the  insect  and  destroy  the  inmate.  The  course  of  the 
mine  cun  usually  be  traced  by  the  discoloration  and  splitting  of 
the  bark  following  the  tunneling  by  the  borer.  Recent  studies 
have  shown  that  the  beetles  feed  readily  on  the  foliage,  and  they 
point  to  the  possibility  of  successfully  controlling  the  insect  by 
an  application  of  an  arsenical  spray  during  the  latter  part  of  May, 
or  shortly  before  the  beetles  begin  to  appear.  Worthy  also  of 
trial  during  early  June  is  an  applica- 
tion of  a  deterrent  wash  to  the  trunks 
and  branches  in  order  to  prevent  ovi- 
position.  For  bearing  orchards  the 
latter  measures  are  recommended  tenta- 
tively, pending  the  results  of  our  ex- 
periments to  determine  their  merits. 


The  Round-  and  Flat-headed  Borers 
The  round-headed  borer,  Saperda 
Candida  Fab.,  and  the  flat-headed  borer, 
Ehrysobothris  femorata  Fab.,  are  very 
destructive  pests  to  different  fruit  trees, 
including  the  pear,  and  they  do  more 
damage  than  the  average  grower  ap- 
preciates. The  injuries  are  caused  by 
the  grubs,  or  larvae,  that  work  beneath 
the  bark.  If  the  burrows  or  channels 
of  the  insects  are  numerous,  the  bark 
may  be  girdled,  resulting  in  the  decline 
and  death  of  the  trees.  Recent  investi- 


FIG.  302. —  THE  ROUND- 
HEADED  APPLE-TREE 
BORER 


1022  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

gations  have  also'  shown  that  insects  play  an  important  role 
as  disseminators  of  diseases.  It  is  now  believed  that  various 
wood-boring  insects  are  in  part  responsible  for  cankers  and  other 
disorders  of  the  trunks  of  fruit  trees.  The  wounds  and  holes  in 
the  bark  produced  by  these  pests  certainly  make  it  possible  for 
disease-producing  organisms  to  establish  themselves  in  the  tree. 

The  adult  round-headed  borer  is  a  handsome  beetle  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long  and  light  brown  in  color,  with  two  white 
stripes  across  thorax  and  along  each  wing.  The  adult  of  the  asso- 
ciated species  is  a  dull  metallic  brown  in  color  and  about  one-half 
inch  in  length.  The  life  histories  of  the  two  insects  are  very 
similar.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  crevices  or  slits  in  the  bark, 
and  from  these  there  develop  the  pale  grubs,  which  may  be  observed 
working  beneath  the  bark  and  which  are  familiar  to  most  growers. 

Treatment.  The  trees,  especially  in  young  plantings,  should 
tbe  inspected  every  fall  and  spring  for  discolored  areas  in  the 
bark  or  for  wounds  from  which  there  is  exudation  of  sap  or  for 
sawdust-like  castings.  When  such  are  detected  the  borers  should 
be  cut  out  by  means  of  a  strong,  sharp  knife.  Grubs  buried 
deeply  in  the  heartwood  may  be  destroyed  by  probing  with  a 
piece  of  wire  or  by  injecting  carbon  bisulphide  into  the  burrows, 
after  which  the  openings  should  be  immediately  sealed  with 
grafting  wax.  As  unthrifty  trees  are  more  susceptible  to  attack, 
the  needs  of  the  orchard  in  other  respects  should  be  given  careful 
attention  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  trees  to  outgrow  the 
injuries  and  ward  off  subsequent  attacks. 

INSECTS  THAT  INCRUST  THE  BARK 

The  San  Jose  Scale 

San  Jose  scale,  Aspidiotus  pemiciosus  Comstock,  ranks  as  one 
of  the  worst  pests  of  fruit  trees.  Besides  the  pear,  it  attacks  the 
cherry,  apple,  peach,  plum,  currant  —  practically  all  our  common 
orchard  trees  and  bush  fruits.  It  thrives  also  on  many  shade  trees 
and  ornamental  shrubs. 

Large  numbers  of  this  scale  appear  as  a  grayish,  scurfy  deposit, 
not  unlike  a  coat  of  ashes.  The  bark  becomes  rough  and  dull  in- 
stead of  having  a  smooth  and  polished  appearance.  Branches  that 
are  infested  with  large  numbers  of  the  insect  usually  show  dead 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL     1023 

twigs,  and  foliage  is  sparse.  Infested  leaves  are  often  marked 
with  red  or  purplish  spots.  The  pears  are  rough,  scabby,  aim 
spotted  with  red ;  the  reddish  discoloration  being  most  noticeable 
jiround  the  margins  of  the  scales.  The  wonderful  'power  of  repro- 
duction of  this  species  makes  it  the  most  formidable  of  our  orchard 
scales. 


FIG.  303. —  COMMON  SCALE  INSECTS  (Much  en- 
larged), (a)  SAN  JOSE*  SCALE j  (b)  OYSTER- 
SHELL  SCALE,  (c)  SCURFY  SCALE 

Treatment.  To  combat  San  Jose  scale  the  grower  should  apply 
lime-sulphur  solution  late  in  fall  or  preferably  in  spring  just 
before  the  leaves  begin  to  show.  The  concentrated  solution,  testing 
from  thirty-two  to  thirty-four  degrees  Baume,  should  be  diluted 
in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  to  eight  or  nine  gallons  of  water. 
Commercial  miscible  oils  diluted  with  twelve  or  fifteen  parts  of 
water  are  used  with  considerable  success  by  some  growers.  These 
preparations  should  be  applied  in  spring  while  buds  are  swelling. 

The  Oyster-Shell  Scale 

Oyster-shell  scale,  Lepidosaplies  ulmi  Linn.,  appears  as  a  brown 
scale  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long,  closely  resembling  the  bark 
in  color  and  somewhat  like  a  long,  narrow  oyster  shell 


in 


1024  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

shape.  In  some  seasons  the  insects  appear  in  such  numbers  that 
twigs  and  branches  are  literally  covered,  in  which  event  the  health 
and  vigor  of  the  trees  are  seriously  impaired.  This  species-  is 
commonly  found  011  pear  and  apple,  although  it  attacks  many 
other  plants. 

The  Scurfy  Scale 

Scurfy  scale,  Chionpasis  furfura  Fitch.,  somewhat  resembles  the 
oyster-shell  scale,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  it  by  its  greater 
breadth  and  white  color.  When  present  in  large  numbers  it  is 
conspicuous  by  its  contrast  with  the  dark  bark.  It  is  common  on 
pear,  apple,  and  quince. 

Successive  years'  spraying  with  the  lime-sulphur  mixture  as 
indicated  for  San  Jose  scale  will  also  free  the  tree's  from  oyster- 
shell  scale  and  scurfy  scale.  About  the  middle  of  June,  as  the 
young  scales  hatch,  the  latter  s-pecies  may  also  be  efficiently  con- 
trolled by  applying  one  pound  of  fish-oil  soap  dissolved  in  five 
gallons  of  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  eight  parts 
of  water. 

INSECTS   THAT   ATTACK   THE   BLOSSOMS   AND   FRUIT 

The  Codling  Moth 

The  codling  moth,  Carpocapsa  pomonella  Linn.,  is  responsible 
for  wormy  pears.  The  damage  to  the  fruit  is  done  by  a  worm, 
or  caterpillar,  of  a  small  moth,  popularly  known  as  the  codling 
moth.  There  are  two  broods  of  worms.  The  first  brood  appears 
in  early  summer,  while  the  second  brood  is  active  during  late 
summer.  The  worms  of  the  first  brood  are  hatched  from  tiny 
dislike  eggs,  laid  on  the  trees  by  the  parent  moths,  on  or  near 
young  pears.  Two  or  three  weeks  after  the  trees  have  blossomed, 
the  eggs  hatch.  The  young  worm  crawls  to  the  blossom  end  of 
the  pear  and  burrows  into  the  interior  of  the  young  fruit,  feeding 
as  it  goes.  After  feeding  for  two  or  three  weeks,  the  worm  leaves 
the  pear  and  spins  a  cocoon  under  the  rough  bark  of  the  trees  or 
under  adjacent  rubbish.  Within  this  cocoon  it  changes  to  a  pupa, 
and  later  to  a  moth,  which  is-  the  codling  moth  of  the  second  brood. 
In  the  latitude  of  Geneva  the  second  brood  of  moths  appears  during 
the  latter  part  of  July  or  early  August.  During  some  seasons, 
the  late  brood  of  worms  is  rather  numerous  and  is  responsible  for 


INSECTS  ATTACK  INC;  THK  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL     1025 

the  increasing  numbers  of  wormy  fruit  as  the  time  of  picking 
approaches.  These  late  worms  spend  the  winter  in  cocoons  as 
described  and  do  not  transform  to  moths  until  spring,  after  the 
trees  have  blossomed. 


(a)  (b) 

FIG.  304. —  THE  CODLI.NU  MOTH:     (a)  WORK  IN  APPLE;   (b)   MOTH 

Treatment.  Nearly  all  the  codling-moth  worms  seek  the  blossom, 
or  calyx,  end  of  the  young  pear,  where  they  feed  before  borrowing 
into  the  interior.  The  object  in  spraying  is  to  coat  this  portion  of 
the  young  pear  with  poison  so  that  the  worm  may  be  destroyed  at 
its  first  meal.  The  best  time  to  apply  the  poison  is  after  the 
blossoms  have  largely  dropped  and  before  the  calyx  cup  closes. 
Direct  the  nozzles  so  that  the  spray  will  be  shot  into  the  throat 
of  every  blossom,  or  calyx  cavity. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  recommended  as  it  is  extremely  poisonous 
to  the  codling-moth  worms  and  on  drying  is  very  evenly  distributed. 
If  it  is  properly  made,  it  is  the  most  adhesive  of  spraying  poisons 
and  does  not  generally  cause  burning  of  foliage.  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  recommended  as  the  carrier  of  this  poison.  Arsenate  of 
lead  should  be  employed  in  the  proportions  of  two  or  three  pounds 
to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  or  of  bordeaux  mixture,  if  it  is  desired  to 
apply  a  fungicide. 

The  False  Tarnished  Plant  Bug 

The  false  tarnished  plant  bug,  Lygus  invitus  Say,  is  responsible 
for  a  diseased  condition  of  pears  characterized  by  the  cracking 
open  of  the  skin  in  small  spots  and  the  formation  of  protruding 
granular  areas.  Fruits  seriously  injured  are  usually  much 


1020 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


deformed  and  undersized.  The  damage  is  done  by  the  nymphs 
that  make  their  appearance  during  the  period  when  the  trees  are 
coming  into  blossom  and  until  pollination  is  completed  when  the 
young  fruits  are  the  size  of  filberts.  A  single  nymph  may  stab  a 
pear  many  times,  and  while  the  initial 
wounds  are  at  first  slight  and  seemingly 
inconsequential,  they  nevertheless  produce 
a  disfiguration  that  becomes  increasingly 
prominent  as  the  fruit  increases  in  size. 
All  the  leading  sorts  of  pears  are  subject  to 
injury. 

Treatment  Spray  the  trees  with  three- 
fourths  of  a  pint  of  nicotine  solution  (40 
per  cent)  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water, 
to  which  is  added  three  pounds  of  soap  to 
cause  the  liquid  to  stick  and  spread  better. 
The  application  should  be  made  just  after 
the  blossoming  period  or  when  petals  are 
falling. 

The  Pear  Midge 

The  pear  rnidge,  Contarinia  pyrivora 
Riley,  causes  young  pears  to  become 
stunted  and  deformed.  The  identity  of  the 
species  is  readily  recognized  by  cutting  into 

a  young  affected  fruit,  when  tiny  maggots  will  be  observed  working 
in  and  around  the  core.  Eggs  are  laid  by  a  tiny  midge  in  the 
interior  of  the  unopened  blossom.  On  hatching  the  young  larvae 
work  their  way  to  the  ovary,  and  feed  about  the  core.  After  com- 
pleting its  growth,  the  maggot  abandons  the  fruit  and  enters  the 
ground,  where  it  remains  until  the  following  spring. 

Treatment.  No  satisfactory  means  for  the  prevention  of  losses 
to  the  crop  have  been  devised,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  the  insect 
is  of  rather  local  importance.  For  the  protection  of  a  few  trees 
it  is  desirable  to  collect  and  destroy  by  the  middle  of  May  all 
infested  fruits,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  their  size  and 
shape.  For  commercial  plantings  the  only  recourse  is  frequent 
and  thorough  cultivation  during  June  and  July. 


its 


FIG.  305.—  THE  FALSE 
TARNISHED  PLANT 
BUG  :  NYMPH  PUNC- 
TURING A  YOUNG 
PEAR 


I.xsi  «  is  ATTATKIXC;  TIIK  PKAK,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL      1027 


1028 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  307. —  THE  PEAR  MIDGE  :  YOUNG  PEARS  DEFORMED  BY  LARVAE 

The  Pear  TJirips 

Th  pear  thrips,  Taeniothrips  pyri  Daniel,  occurs  in  all  the  lead- 
ing fru it-growing  sections  of  the  state.     It  is  most  injurious  in 


FIG.  308. —  THE  PEAR  THRIPS:    ADULT  (much  enlarged) 


the  Hudson  Valley  and  has  attracted  the  attention  of  growers 
generally  in  the  localities  of  Germantown  and  Hudson.  The 
adult  thrips,  which  is  largely  responsible  for  the  injuries  to  the 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  TIIK  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL      1029 


FIG.     309.—  THE 

I'KAU  TllKM'S: 

K(,<;s       (en- 
larged) 


trees,  is  a  small,  darkish  brown,  winged  insect  measuring  about 
one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  appears  in  destructive 
numbers  when  the  buds  are  opening,  attacking 
the  tenderest  of  the  flower  parts.  While  all 
fruits  are  subject  to  attack,  pears  of  the  varieties 
Kieffer  and  Seckel  sustain  the  greatest  damage. 
In  severe  attacks  the  trees  are  wet  with  sap  that 
runs  down  the  fruit  spurs  discoloring  the  bark, 
while  bud  scales,  blossom  bracts,  and  sepals  of 
unopened  blossoms  become  blackish  or  discolored. 
At  time  of  full  bloom  trees  severely  injured 
appear  as  if  struck  by  blight.  The  eggs  are 
mostly  deposited  in  the  blossom  and  fruit  stems.  Hatching  takes 
place  in  a  few  days,  and  after  feeding  for  about  two  weeks  the 
larvae  drop  to  the  ground.  In  a  protecting  cell,  the  insect  com- 
pletes its  transformations  and  emerges  from  the  ground  in  spring 
as  an  adult. 

Treatment.  The  thrips  is  a  difficult 
pest  to  combat  because  of  the  nature  and 
suddenness  of  its  attacks.  Spraying  is 
the  most  efficient  method  of  control.  The 
period  for  effective  spraying  is  during  the 
time  when  buds  are  breaking  and  until 
they  are  entirely  opened  at  the  tips.  The 
most  efficient  mixtures  are  nicotine  prepa- 
rations in  combination  with  an  oil  emul- 
sion or  soap.  A  very  satisfactory  formula 
is  three-fourths  pint  of  nicotine  solution 
(40  per  cent)  in  one  hundred  gallons  of 
water,  adding  from  two  to  five  pounds  of 
soap.  Apply  the  spray  in  liberal  quan- 
tities as  a  rather  coarse  driving  spray, 
holding  the  nozzle  fairly  close  to  the  buds 
in  order  to  force  the  liquid  into  the  ends 
of  the  buds.  When  petals  drop,  the 
treatment  should  be  repeated  to  destroy 
the  larvae.  Considerable  protection  may 
be  afforded  to  the  trees  by  a  heavy  application  of  a  whitewash  as 
buds  are  beginning  to  break  at  the  ends.  The  whitewashes  made 


FIG.    310.— THE 
PEAR  THRIPS  : 
LARVAE 
( enlarged ) 


1030  THE  J?RUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  311. —  KIEFFER  BRANCH  SHOWING  BLIGHTING  OF  BLOSSOM  CLUSTERS 
DUE  TO  WORK  OF  THRIPS 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL     1031 

by  slaking  eighty  pounds  of  quicklime  for  each  one  hundred 
gallons  of  wash.  This  should  be  strained  through  fine  brass 
screening  before  applying. 

The  Plum  Curculio 

The  curculio,  C '  onotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst.,  causes  deformed 
and  knotty  pears.  It  also  produces  holes  in  the  maturing  fruit 
that  are  often  confused  with  the  work  of  the  codling  moth.  The 


FIG.  312. —  THE  PLUM  CURCULIO:  YOUNG  PEARS  SHOWING  FEEDING 
AND  OVIPOSITION  PUNCTURES 


adult  is  a  small  gray  beetle  that  passes  the  winter  under  the  bark 
of  trees  or  under  rubbish.  This  insect  appears  early  in  spring 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  young  fruits.  The  egg  is  inserted  under 
the  skin,  after  which  a  crescent-shaped  cut  is  made  around  one 
side  of  the  puncture.  Egg  laying  continues  for  about  two  months. 
Treatment.  The  plum  curculio  is  rarely  injurious  to  commer- 
cial plantings  of  pears  in  New  York  except  where  the  orchard  is 
adjacent  to  woods,  brush  land,  or  other  favorable  hibernating 


1032  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

quarters  or  to  plantings  of  plums  and  peaches.  The  most  effec- 
tive means  of  combating  this  pest  in  pear  and  apple  orchards  are 
spraying  with  lead  arseuate,  clean  cultivation,  tillage,  and 
destruction  of  windfalls.  It  is  possible  to  reduce  the  numbers  of 
the  insects  in  nearby  plantings  of  plums  and  peaches  by  jarring 
the  plum  or  peach  trees  or  by  spraying  with  arseuate  of  lead  just 
after  blossoming.  If  the  infestation  is  due  to  the  close  proximity 
of  woods  or  waste  lands,  such  places  should  be  cleared  of  the 
underbrush  or  burned  over  during  the  winter  so  as  to  destroy 
hibernating  insects. 

The  Bud  Moth 

The  larva  of  the  bud  moth,  Tmetocem  ocellcma  Schiff.,  hiber- 
nates over  winter  under  a  tiny  shelter  on  the  young  wood,  and 
in  spring  attacks  the  opening  buds.  Later,  when  leaves  and 
blossoms  unfold,  it  seeks  the  clusters,  forming  a  retreat  in  the 
webbed  leaves.  By  reason  of  its  destructiveness  to  buds  and 
blossoms,  the  bud  moth  is  a  serious  pest  during  some  seasons. 
The  caterpillar  is  darkish  red  in  color  and  pupates  in  June.  The 
moth  makes  its  appearance  about  ten  days  later,  and  soon  after- 
ward eggs  are  deposited  for  the  next  year's  brood.  From  these 
eggs  caterpillars  hatch  that  feed  on  the  leaves  until  fall,  when 
they  seek  sheltered  retreats  for  the  winter. 

Treatment.  Systematic  spraying  with  arsenicals  each  year 
will  control  this  species.  The  times  for  effective  spraying  are, 
first,  as  the  buds  begin  to  expand,  and,  secondly,  when  the  leaves 
are  fairly  out. 

The  Leaf  Rollers 

The  oblique-banded  leaf  roller,  Ar chips  rosaceana  Harris,  and 
the  fruit-tree  leaf  roller,  Ar  chips  argyrospila  Walker,  are  native 
insects  that  feed  on  a  variety  of  fruits,  such  as  pear,  apple,  peach, 
plum,  and  cherry.  These  insects  also  attack  various  shade  and 
forest  trees.  The  leaf  rollers  are  destructive  to  fruit  trees  dur- 
ing some  seasons  because  of  their  work  on  blossoms,  young  fruits, 
and  foliage.  The  oblique-banded  leaf  roller  attacks  young1  pears 
as  soon  as  they  set  and  continues  feeding  on  them  until  the  fruit 
attains  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  eat  large  round  holes, 
sometimes  extending  to  or  even  beyond  the  core.  The  larva  of 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  COXTROL     1033 

the  fruit-tree  leaf  roller  appears  as  the  buds  are  bursting  and 
feeds  on  the  unfolding  leaves.  The  leaves  and  blossom  clusters 
are  tied  together  in  a  web,  within  which  the  larvae  feed.  The 
injury  to  the  fruit  is  similar  to  that  described  for  the  above  asso- 
ciated species.  The  caterpillars  mature  in  June,  and  the  moths 
appear  about  one  month  later.  The*fruit-tree  leaf  roller  deposits 
its  eggs  on  the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  twigs,  where  they  remain 
tli rough  the  winter. 

Trcfihnciil.  Very  careful  and  thorough  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  (three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  mixture)  should  afford 
satisfactory  protection.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
shortly  after  the  eggs  begin  to  hatch,  which  will  be  when  the  first 
green  foliage  is  showing  on  the  trees,  and  the  second  as  soon  as 
the  blc.--.som  buds  have  separated  in  the  clusters.  The  fruit-tree 
leaf  roller  has  proved  a  difficult  insect  to  control.  Arsenate  of 
lead  should  be  applied  as  recommended  for  the  associated  species. 
lie  cent  experiments  indicate  that  the  insect  may  be  efficiently 
combated  by  thorough  spraying  just  before  buds  open  with  mis- 
cible  oil  diluted  with  fifteen  parts  of  water. 

The  Green  Fruit  Worms 

The  green  fr.uit  worms,  Xylina  spp.f  sometimes^tlo  serious  in- 
jury by  eating  into  the  young  pears.  They  also  attack  apples, 
plums,  cherries,  peaches,  and  quinces.  The  full-grown  cater- 
pillars measure  from  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
length.  They  are  green  or  yellowish  green  in  color  with  various 
irregular  markings  and  stripes,  the  most  prominent  of  the  latter 
being  a  narrow,  cream-colored  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back 
and  a  wider  one  along  each  side.  The  caterpillars  are  most 
destructive  during  May,  soon  after  the  fruit  has  formed.  They 
continue  feeding  until  about  the  middle  of  June.  They  feed 
mostly  at  night,  resting  on  the  undersides  of  the  leaves  during 
the  day.  When  full-grown,  they  go  into  the  ground,  form  a 
rough  cocoon,  and  pupate.  The  adults  are  dull-colored  moths, 
measuring  about  two  inches  from  tip  to  tip  with  the  wings  spread. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  spring,  and  the  caterpillars  appear  during 
the  early  leafing  period. 

Treatment.     These  insects  are  difficult  pests  to  combat  when 


1034 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW  YORK   STATE 


FIG.  313.— THE  GREEN  FRUIT  WORM:     (1)    CATERPILLARS  EATING  YOUNG 
PEAR;    (2)   MATURE  PEAR  SHOWING  EFFECTS  OF  INJURY 

once  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for  the  young  fruits.  They  are, 
however,  much  less  destructive  in  orchards  that  are  well  sprayed 
each  year  and  given  careful  attention  in  other  respects.  Observa- 
tions indicate  that  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  protecting  the 
crop  is  thorough  spraying  with  arsenicals  before  blossoming  and 
after  petals  drop.  Cultivation  is  unquestionably  fatal  to  many 
of  the  pupae  in  the  ground. 


INSECTS   THAT  ATTACK   THE   FOLIAGE 

The  Pear  Psylla 

Probably  the  most  troublesome  insect  attacking  the  pear  is  the 
pear  psylla,  Psylla  pyricola  Forster.  These  tiny  insects  are  simi- 
lar in  many  ways  to  aphides  and  are  sometimes  called  jumping 
plant  lice.  Like  plant  lice,  they  are  sucking  insects,  and  multiply 
rapidly,  so  that  unless  checked,  they  make  up  in  numbers  what 
they  lack  in  size  and  may  injure  the  trees  very  severely.  A  number 
of  broods  are  produced  in  summer,  and  the  adults  that  live  through 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL      1035 


FIG.  314.—  THE 
PEARPSYLLA: 
ADULT 


the  winter  are  quite  distinct  from  the  summer  adults.  They  appear 
early  in  spring  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  protected  places  on  the 
bark.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  three  weeks,  and 
the  little  larvae,  or  nymphs,  at  once  begin  to  suck 
the  juices  from  the  young  leaves  and  twigs.  A 
favorite  place .  for  the  young  nymphs  is  in  the 
axils  of  tho  leaves  and  at  the  bases  of  the  fruit 
stems.  Within  two  or  three  days  after  hatching 
they  cover  themselves  with  hoiieydew,  which 
finally  becomes  very  abundant.  The  leaves  be- 
come stunted  and  sometimes  fall,  and  the  fruit 
ceases  to  grow  in  size  and  may  drop  prematurely 
if  the  work  of  this  first  brood  is  continued  by 
the  later  broods.  In  long-continued  attacks  the 
trees  may  become  almost  defoliated,  and  the  new 
leaves,  if  they  appear,  are  generally  few  in 
number  and  pale  in  color.  With  the  injury  caused  by  the  draft 
on  the  sap  of  the  tree,  there  is  joined  an  external  disfigurement 
of  both  leaves  and  wood  due  to  the  copious  secretion,  of  honey- 
dew  by  the  psylla,  which  serves  as  food  for  the  sooty  fungus. 
Growth  of  this  fungus 
soon  gives  the  wood  a 
smutty,  discolored  appear- 
ance and  darkens  and 
stains  the  leaves.  If  the 
attacks  of  psylla  are  se- 
vere, the  trees  go  into 
win  for  in  a  weakened  state 
and  succumb  much  more 
readily  to  low  tempera- 
tures than  do  uninjured 
trees.  Renewed  attacks, 
year  after  year,  so  lessen 
the  vitality  of  the  trees 
tli at  they  become  unpro- 
ductive. 

Treatment     During  seasons  when  it  is  superabundant  the  psylla 
is  greatly  feared,  and  most  growers  fail  to  protect  their  orchards. 


FIG.  315. —  THE  PEAR  PSYLLA:    EGGS 


1036  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

The  causes  for  failures  are  not  always-  apparent,  but  spraying  prac- 
tices with  many  orchardists  are  usually  faulty  in  that  there  is  no 
systematic  treatment  of  the  trees,  and  directions  for  spraying  are 

not  always  correctly  interpreted  or  care- 
fully followed.  For  orchards  annually 
subject  to  attack  the  following  meas- 
ures are  recommended: 

1.  Practice  clean  culture  so  as  to  pre- 
vent flies  from  wintering  in  accumu- 
tions  of  matted  leaves  and  weeds. 

2.  Kemove  rough  bark   in  order  to 
discourage  flies  from  wintering  on  the 
trees  and  to  render  them  more  exposed 

to   spraying  mixtures.      Bark  is  more 
FIG.  316.— THE  PEAR 

PSYLLA:    LARVA  easily  detached  immediately  following 

(enlarged)  ft  wet  period>     Care  should  be  taken  not 

to  cut  into  the  live  tissues. 

3.  Spray   thoroughly  to  kill  the  flies   with   nicotine  solution 
(40    per    cent)    using   three-fourths   pint    to    one    hundred   gal- 
lons of  water  and  three  pounds  of  soap,  preferably  during  a  warm 
spell    in    November    or    December,    or    during    March    or    early 
April.     Select  a  day  when  the  mixture  will  not  freeze  on  the  trees. 
Some  growers  prefer  a  miscible  oil,  using  one  gallon  diluted  with 
fifteen  gallons  of  water.     This  treatment  should  only  be  made  in 
spring  before  the  buds  open  and  on  days  when  there  is  no  danger 
of  freezing  of  the  spraying  mixture. 

4.  Spray  trees  thoroughly  with   the  lime-sulphur  mixture   at 
winter  strength  so  as  to  destroy  the  eggs.     This  treatment  should 
be  made  during  the  latter  part  of  April  or  early  in  May,  or  just 
before  the  cluster  buds  separate  at  the  ends. 

5.  Spray  the  trees  thoroughly  just  after  blossoms  drop  in  order 
to  kill  the  newly-hatched  nymphs,  with  nicotine  solution  (40  per 
cent),  using  three-fourths  of  a  pint  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water 
and  three   pounds   of   soap    or  kerosene   emulsion    diluted   with 
eight  parts  of  water.    Direct  the  spray  into  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
and  fruits,  and  wet  both  surfaces  of  the  leaves. 

If  the  work  is  well  done,  it  is  not  necessary  to  cany  out  all  of 
these  measures  each  year.  If  the  trees  have  been  carefully  scraped, 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR,  AND  THEIR  CONTROL     1037 


a  combination  of  treatments  3  and  4,  or  3  and  5  should  be  suffi- 
cient. Sonic  ^rowers  have  entirely  controlled  the  psylla  with 
treatment  3  alone,  to  kill  the  hibernating  flies.  Where  adjacent 
orchards  are  neglected,  however,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  appli- 
cations during  the  summer  so  as  to  control  invaders  from  such 
unsprayed  plantations.  In  this  event  frequent  and  thorough 
spraying  with  nicotine  solution  and  soap  is  advised. 

The  Pear  Slug 

The  larvae  of  this  species,  Eri&cwmpoides  limacina  Retz.,  are 
small,  shiny,  dark  green  or  almost  black,  sluglike  creatures  that 
feed   011  the   upper  surface  of  the 
leaves,  leaving  the  skeleton  of  veins 
and  the  lower  epidermis  that  turn 
brown  and  wither.     There  are  two 
broods  during  the  year.      This  in- 
sect appears  in  destructive  numbers 
only  in  occasional  years. 

Trc/ihnaif.  Apply  arsenate  of 
lead,  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of 
water,  as  soon  as  the  pests  are  de- 
tected. Dusting  of  foliage  with 
freshly  slaked  lime  also  affords 
efficient  protection  from  the  insect.* 


FIG.  317. —  THE  PEAR  SLUG: 

LARVA  AND  WORK  ON  LEAF 

(After  Webster). 


The  Blister  Mite 

The  blister  mite,  Eriophyes  pyri  (Pgst.)   Nal.,  is  responsible 
for  dark  brown  or  blackish  patches,  or  blisters,  of  various  sizes 


FIG.  318. —  THE  BLISTER  MITE:    ADULT    (enlarged) 

that  may  cover  much  of  the  leaf  and  sometimes  cause  it  to  rupture 
in  one  or  more  parts,  especially  along  the  margins.  The  mites 
burrow  into  the  leaves  from  below,  and  the  irritation  they  cause 


1038 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XE\V   YORK  STATE 


induces  the  growth  of  galls.  These  at  first  are  greenish  pimples 
with  a  more  or  less  reddish  tinge.  The  color  strengthens  as  the 
galls  enlarge,  appearing  as  dead  areas  of  varying  size.  The 
galls  also  show  one  or  more  tiny  openings  —  the  tunnels  or 
burrows  made  by  the  mites  on  entering  and  leaving  the  leaf.  The 
mites  spend  the  winter  in  the  buds,  usually  under  the  second  and 
third  layers  of  bud  scales.  They  frequently  collect  in  colonies  of 
fifty  or  more  in  little  depressions  in  the  scales  and  are  more  or  less 
concealed  and  protected  by  the  pubescence  of  the  buds.  As  the 
buds  burst,  the  mites  move  to  the  unfolding  leaves  in  which  they 
burrow  and  establish  new  colonies.  In  October,  the  mites  abandon 
the  leaves  and  hide  in  the  buds. 


FIG.   319. —  WORK  OF  THE  BLISTER  MITE  ON  PEAR  LEAVES 

Treatment.  The  mite  is  easily  controlled  by  spraying  the  trees 
in  spring  before  the  leaves  appear  with  lime-sulphur  mixture.  The 
concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution  should  be  diluted  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  gallon  of  the  solution,  testing  32  to  34  degrees 
Baume,  to  ten  or  twelve  gallons  of  water  for  the  treatment  of  the 
mite  alone;  but  if  scale  is  present  on  the  trees,  the  spray  should 
be  stronger,  one  gallon  to  eight  or  nine  gallons  of  water. 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS 

PROFESSOR  M.  F.   BARRUS 
Department  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


KIRK    BLKJIIT 


Fire  blight  is,  without  doubt,  one  of 
the  most  destructive  diseases  of  pears  in 
this  country.  The  losses  from  the  disease 
amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 
Not  only  are  large  blocks  of  nursery  pears 
often  absolutely  destroyed,  but  young 
trees  may  become  affected  at  any  stage 
of  their  growth  and  even  old  trees  are 
seriously  injured  if  not  killed  outright. 
The  disease  attacks  pears,  apples, 
quinces,  hawthornes,  and  other  cultivated  and  wild  species  of  the 
apple  family,  and  is  reported  to  occur  on  plums,  cherries,  and  a 
few  other  plants.  It  is  most  destructive  to  pears  and  quinces 
although  apples  may  suffer  severely  from  blossom  and  twig  blight. 
Some  varieties  of  apples  show  injury  to  the  limbs  and  the  body, 
especially  when  they  are  young.  None  of  the  cultivated  varieties 
of  pears  seem  to  be  immune,  although  some  are  injured  more 
severelv  from  the  disease  than  are  others. 


Symptoms  of  the  Disease 

During  the  dormant  season  one  can  detect  the  disease  by  the 
presence  of  dry  brown  leaves  clinging  to  the  infected  branches, 
while  the  healthy  branches  are  bare.  At  this  time  a  distinct  crack 
in  the  bark  often  separates  the  diseased  area  from  the  healthy.  The 
disease  may  also  appear  on  the  trunk  or  limbs  as  cankers  that  are 
sunken  areas  of  varying  size  separated  from  the  healthy  parts  by 
this  definite .  crack.  On  cutting  into  the  canker  one  will  usually 
find  that  the  bark  is  dry  and  brown  and  that  the  dead  area  extends 
to  the  wood  below.  Oftentimes  there  will  be  sprouts  or  spurs  that 
spring  from  the  tree  within  the  cankered  area.  These  are  always 

[1030] 


1040 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


dead  and  when  present  give  one  a  clue  to  the  starting  point  of  the 
cankers.  In  the  case  of  some  trees,  especially  Kieffers,  certain 
body  cankers  may  affect  only  the  outer  bark,  injuring  the  tree  but 
little  or  not  at  all. 

Dead  sunken  areas  greatly  resembling  fire-blight  cankers  may 
be  due  to  winter  injury,  but  it  is  impossible  to  tell  in  some  cases 
what  causes  the  trouble.  Winter  injury 
does  not  necessarily  occur  about  the  base  of 
a  spur.  It  may  occur  along  the  west  or 
southwest  side  of  trunk  and  branches  and 
even  encircle  them,  or  it  may  occur  in  the 
crotch  and  at  the  base  of  the  trunk  near  the 
ground. 

During  the  growing  season  one  can 
always  distinguish  blight  by  the  presence 
of  dead  twigs,  limbs,  or  blossom  spurs,  their 
dead  brown  leaves  contrasting  sharply  with 
the  glossy  green  of  other  leaves.  At  this 
season  the  margin  between  healthy  and 
diseased  bark  on  the  limbs  is  not  so  evident. 
The  affected  bark  is  of  a  darker  color  than 
is  normal  and  when  cut  into  shows  a  reddish 
brown  discoloration,  but  there  is  no  crack 
between  healthy  and  diseased  tissues.  Some- 
times the  reddish  streaks  of  diseased  tissue 
may  be  found  to  extend  for  several  inches, 
or  more  than  a  foot,  underneath  healthy 
tissue  of  the  bark,  and  so  they  cannot  be 
discovered  without  having  the  bark  above 
removed.  The  infected  tissue  may  extend 

into  the  roots,  either  showing  on  the  exterior  as  a  sunken  dis- 
colored streak,  or  lying  concealed  underneath  unless  the  outer  bark 
is  peeled  away. 

The  infected  blossoms  turn  dark,  become  withered,  and  the 
leaves  of  the  blossom  spur  become  dead  and  brown  (Fig.  322). 
The  fruit  may  become  infected  at  any  stage  in  its  growth.  The 
affected  area  has  a  water-soaked  appearance,  becomes  soft  and 
brown,  and  later  shrinks  to  a  dark-colored  mummy.  During  the 


FIG.  320.—  FIRE-BLIGHT 
CANKERS  ON  LIMB  OF 
TREE.  NOTE  CRACK 
AT  MARGIN  OF 
CANKER 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS 


1041 


earlier  stairs  of  decay  a  sticky 
gray  substance  oozes  from  the 
lenticels,  collecting  in  drops 
that  later  run  down  the  side  of 
the  fruit.  This  substance  ma y 
he  found  in  moist,  warm 
weather  to  be  oozing  from  the 
affected  portion  of  the  tree 
(Fig.  328).  Late*  it  dries 
down  to  a  linn  amber-colored 
mass  that  may  become  almost 
black. 

('aiise  of  the  Disease 
This  disease  is  caused  by 
<nie  of  the  lower  plant  organ- 
isms called  bacteria.  The  bo- 
tanical name  of  the  organism 
causing  fire  blight  is  Bacillus 
(imylovoms.  Like  other  bac- 
teria, it  is  exceedingly  small  and,  while  a  large  number  together 
can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  a  single  specimen  is-^visible  only 
with  the  aid  of  a  high-power  lens.  Even  then  it  is  seen  indistinctly 

unless  one  is  accustomed  to  looking 
through  a  microscope.  These  bacilli 
have  an  oblong  body  with  from  two  to 
four  long,  whiplike  flagella  that  enable 
them  to  swim  about  in  the  sap  of 
affected  tissues.  They  increase  in 
number  by  dividing  at  the  middle  into 
two,  and  then  growing  to  normal  size. 
This  division  may  take  place  every 
half  hour  as  long  as  conditions  are 
favorable  for  their  development. 


FIG.   321. —  TWIG     BLIGHT.       NOTE 
THAT  IT  BEGAN  AT  THE  VERY  TIP 


FIG.  322.— BLOSSOM  BLIGHT. 
XOTE  CANKER  ABOUT 
BASE  OF  SPUR 


Life  History  of  iFire  Blight 
In  a  more  or  less  inactive  condition, 
these  bacteria  pass  the  winter  in  hold- 


1042 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XKW  YORK  STATE 


over  cankers  on  body  or  limb  or  even  in  infected  twigs.  They 
may  die  out  in  many  such  places,  and  in  cankers  they  are 
alive  only  at  the  margins  and  often  there  only  in  isolated 
pockets.  During  warm  days  in  spring  the  bacteria,  nourished 
by  abundant  sap,  becomes  active  and  begin  to  invade  the  adjoin- 
ing healthy  tissues.  They  increase  rapidly  in  number,  and  dur- 
ing warm  rainy  weather  may  ooze  out  with  the  sap  through  cracks 
in  tissues  or  through  broken  down  lenticels  in  viscid  milky  drops 
(Fig.  323).  This  sweet  sticky  ooze  is  attractive  to  insects  and 
is  visited,  among  others,  by  wasps,  bees,  and  flies.  They  become 
smeared  with  it,  and  later,  in  visiting  blossoms,  leave  behind  in  the 

nectar  some  of  the  bacteria 
that  cling  to  them.  Then 
every  blossom  visited  by  these 
insects  becomes  inoculated  in 
the  same  manner.  The  bac- 
teria increase  rapidly  in  the 
sweet  nectar;  other  bees  vis- 
iting it  become  contaminated 
and  carry  the  organism  to  all 
other  blossoms  visited  by  them. 
In  this  way  the  organism  may 
become  widely  distributed 
from  a  single  source  of  infec- 
tion. One  can  readily  im- 
agine how7  extensive  this  dis- 
tribution would  be  with 
numerous  sources  of  infection 

and  with  many  insects  flying. 
FIG.  323. — CANKERED  LIMB  SHOWING  r™     ,  -    ••/?,  •     o.«'M«*« 

EXUDING  MILKY  DROPS  Tne  bacteria  left  m  the  blos- 

soms    of     susceptible     plants 

easily  penetrate  the  tender  tissues  of  the  flower,  where  they  move 
about  among  the  cells  and  absorb  the  nutritive  sap  that  is  needed 
for  the  development  of  the  young  fruit.  The  blossoms  die  after 
nine  or  ten  days,  and  the  disease  shows  as  blossom  blight  so  com- 
monly observed  on  apple  and  pear  trees.  The  bacteria  may  prog- 
ress down  the  spur  to  the  limb  where  they  spread  in  the  tissue  about 
the  base  of  the  spur.  This  infection  later  shows  as  a  canker  ( Fig. 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS  1043 

;>>iji>).  When  the  tree  is  in  a  succulent  and  tender  condition,  the 
bacteria  are  able  to  make  their  way  to  the  large  limbs  and  even  to 
the  body,  until  it  may  become  very  badly  blighted  or  even  killed. 
Cankers  on  the  body  of  the  tree  commonly  occur  about  blighted 
water  sprouts  that  have  become  infected  from  contaminated  suck- 
ing insects,  such  as  aphids  and  tarnished  plant  bugs.  Blight 
cankers  may  also  appear  about  the  borings  made  by  contaminated 
fruit-tree  bark  beetles.  The  germs  are  sometimes  introduced  into 
trees  by  means  of  infected  buds  or  scions,  or  by  contaminated 
grafting  or  pruning  tools;  cases  have  been  observed  in  which  cul- 
tural tools  have  been  responsible  for  the  spread  of  the  disease  in 
an  orchard  by  chipping  the  bark  of  the  trees. 

Conditions  Under  \Yliicli  Infection  Takes  Place 
In  order  to  become  infected  the  tree  must  be  in  a  susceptible 
condition,  that  is,  the  germ  must  be  able  to  live  and  grow  in  the 
tissues.  This  it  is  able  to  do  if  the  tissues  are  tender  and  succu- 
lent. Whenever  they  are  tough  and  woody,  the  bacteria  in  them 
become  rather  inactive  or  die  out  entirely,  and  new  infections  do 
not  often  take  place.  A  tree  that  has  but  a  short  period  of  growth 
during  the  season,  either  because  of  its  nature,  or  because  of 
unfavorable  weather,  or  cultural  or  soil  conditions,  ean  be  subject 
to  infection  only  during  that  short  period.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
tree  that  for  any  reason  has  a  long  period  of  growth  may  becdme 
infected  at  any  time  during  that  period,  provided  the  other  con* 
ditions  necessary  for  infection  are  present.  All  varieties  of  pears 
are  susceptible  to  fire  blight  at  some  period  during  the  season,  but 
some  remain  in  this  condition  longer  than  do  others  and,  as  a 
result,  have  obtained  a  reputation  for  being  more  susceptible. 
Trees  growing  under  good  conditions  of  culture  and  fertility  re- 
ma  in  in  a  susceptible  condition  longer  than  do  those  in  sod  or 
those  less  heavily  fertilized.  When  weather  conditions  prevail 
that  tend  to  keep  trees  growing,  blight  will  be  more  common,  other 
things  being  equal,  than  during  weather  that  tends  to  check  the 
>wth.  The  weather,  culture,  and  fertilization  that  tend  to  pro- 
luce  a  good  growth  and  large  fruit  render  the  trees  susceptible  to 
>light  over  a  longer  period  of  time  than  treatment  that  tends  to 
;ive  a  poor  growth  and  small  fruit. 
3 


1044  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Even  on  trees  in  the  most  susceptible  condition,  however,  no 
blight  would  occur  unless  there  were  present  a  source  of  infec- 
tion in  the  form  of  infected  tissues.  Such  infected  tissues  need 
not  necessarily  be  in  the  same  orchard  and,  indeed,  may  be  a 
considerable  distance  away,  but  the  nearer  and  more  abundant 
they  are,  the  more  chance  there  is  that  new  infections  will  take 
place.  When  the  trees  are  in  a  susceptible  condition,  there  is 
greater  danger  of  new  infections  occurring,  if  the  hold-over  can- 
kers are  oozing,  than  at  any  other  time.  The  oozing  must  take 
place  at  the  time  the  trees  are  in  bloom  if  blossom  blight  is  to 
occur.  As  stated  earlier,  the  oozing  occurs  during,  or  shortly 
following,  warm  moist  weather.  After  the  ooze  becomes  dry  so 
as  not  to  be  sticky,  it  is  not  so  likely  to  become  a  source  of 
infection. 

Again,  the  trees  may  be  in  a  susceptible  condition  and  the 
sources  of  infection  may  be  abundant,  yet  no  blight  occurs  unless 
there  is  an  agent  to  transport  the  germ  and  introduce  it  into 
the  susceptible  plant.  These  agents,  however,  are  usually  abun- 
dant both  in  the  form  of  insects  and  of  man  with  pruning  tools. 

Methods  of  Control 

With  these  thoughts  in  mind  we  shall  proceed  to  an  outline  of 
control  measures.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  controlling  fire 
blight  is  the  removal  (during  the  dormant  season)  of  sources  of 
infection  so  far  as  possible.  Not  only  should  all  infected 
branches,  twigs,  water  sprouts,  and  hold-over  cankers  be  removed, 
but  badly  infected  trees  should  be  cut  down.  Old  hawthorne  and 
wild  crab-apple  trees  along  fence  rows  and  in  pastures  frequently 
harbor  blight,  and  should  therefore  be  destroyed.  All  affected 
portions  cut  away  should  be  burned,  although  it  is  not  necessary 
at  this  season  to  be  particular  about  small  twigs  that  can  be 
plowed  under. 

In  removing  blighted  twigs  and  limbs,  the  cut  should  be  made 
several  inches  below  the  line  separating  diseased  and  healthy 
bark.  In  removing  cankers  on  body  or  limbs,  the  operator  should 
make  %  clean  spindle-shaped  cut  with  a  heavy  sharp  knife  about 
two  or  three  inches  from  the.  margin  of  canker  at  the  sides,  and 
four  or  five  inches  away  at  top  and  bottom.  Care  should  be  taken 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS  1045 

not  to  lea\e  any  unopened  gashes,  as  infection  may  occur  there. 
All  bark  within  the  cut  area  must  be  removed  so  as  to  expose  the 
wood,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  away  any  of  the  wood.  If 
in  removing  the  bark  it  is  found  that  discolored  bark  remains, 
this  also  should  be  cut  away  and  the  cut  surface  should  be  swabbed 
out  with  a  sponge  or  cloth  saturated  with  a  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  made  by  dissolving  one  corrosive  sublimate  tablet  in  a 
pint  of  soft  water.  This  solution  must  not  be  kept  in  metal  con- 
tainers. It  will  be  found  convenient  to  carry  an  ordinary  pint  or 
quart  bottle  of  the  liquid,  to  which  a  sponge  is  attached  by  means 
of  a  long  cord.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  every  part  of  the 
wound  is  wet  with  this  disinfectant.  Germs  can  be  carried  on 
the  tools,  but  if  the  wound  is  disinfected  every  time  a  cut  is  made 
no  infection  will  result.  After  the  wound  has  dried  out,  a  pro- 
tective covering  of  coal  tar.  will  prevent  decay  of  the  heartwood. 
This  covering  can  be  applied  later  in  the  dormant  season  if 
desired. 

Since  the  bark  of  a  young  pear  tree  is  smooth,  cankers  may 
be  readily  detected.  As  the  tree  grows  older,  the  outer  bark 
cracks  and  splits  to  accommodate  the  bark  within.  Oftentimes 
these  cracked  areas  greatly  resemble  fire-blight  cankers.  If  in 
cutting  into  such  areas  one  finds  healthy  green  .hark,  it  is  an 
indication  that  no  canker  exists.  One  should  be  careful  always 
to  disinfect  all  cuts  or  other  wounds  made  in  healthy  bark.  Fire- 
blight  bacteria  are  known  to  produce  superficial  cankers,  referred 
to  earlier  in  this  bulletin,  in  which  only  the  outer  bark  becomes 
affected.  As  they  do  no  special  harm,  these  should  not  be  re- 
loved.  No  matter  how  much  like  a  canker  a  certain  area  on  the 
surface  may  -appear,  it  should  not  be  cut  away  if  there  is  green 
or  white  tissue  beneath.  If,  however,  it  is  discolored  red,  brown, 
or  black,  whether  due  to  fire  blight,  winter  injury,  or  other 
causes,  it  should  be  removed  and  treated  as  described  above.  Fruit 
spurs  coming  from  the  body  and  large  limbs  should  be  broken  off, 
as  they  are  a  frequent  source  of  canker. 

The  removal  of  sources  of  infection  in  and  about  one's  orchard 
is  a  big  step  toward  the  control  of  fire  blight,  but  as  long  as  such 
sources  exist  in  the  neighborhood  one  cannot  hope  that  infections 
will  not  occur.  In  order  to  reduce  the  danger  of  fire  blight  to 
a  minimum,  an  entire  community  should  take  action  against  it. 


1046  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ^EW  YORK  STATE 

If  one  has  been  careful  to  remove  such  sources  of  infection  from 
his  own  orchard,  however,  he  may  hope  to  be  able  practically  to 
prevent  serious  injury  to  his  trees  by  frequent  patrol. 

The  patrol  should  be  carried  on  regularly  and  systematically 
during  the  susceptible,  or  growing,  period  of  the  trees.  This 
means  going  over  the  orchard  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and 
walking  up  and  down  each  row  in  order  to  look  for  blighted  twigs 
or  blossoms.  When  these  are  found  they  should  be  cut  away  and 
the  wound  disinfected  or,  if  small,  they  may  be  broken  away  with 
the  hand,  in  which  case  disinfection  is  not  needed  as  no  tool  has 
come  in  contact  with  the  wound.  The  twig  should  be  removed  at 
a  considerable  distance  below  the  part  visibly  infected,  and  for 
perfect  safety  it  is  advisable  to  remove  it  at  the  limb.  A  twig 
or  a  spur  thus  removed  soon  after  infection  is  observed  will  save 
the  limb  or  even  the  entire  tree.  Soon  after  blossoming  time 
special  care  should  again  be  given  to  patrol.  The  blighted  blos- 
som spurs  may  also  be  broken  off  with  the  hand.  If  these  in- 
fected twigs  dry  up  soon  after  being  removed,  the  bacteria  on 
them  die  and  they  are  therefore  not  dangerous,  but  if  moist 
weather  prevails  at  this  time,  the  bacteria  remain  alive  and  the 
twigs  may  prove  to  be  a  source  of  infection.  It  is  safer,  then, 
to  collect  and  burn  the  removed  twigs. 

If  new  infections  seem  to  occur  more  abundantly  and  fre- 
quently in  a  particular  section  of  the  orchard,  it  is  a  good  indi- 
cation that  hold-over  cankers  have  been  overlooked.  A  careful 
outlook  should  be  kept  up  for  them  in  order  that  they  may  be 
removed  before  much  oozing  occurs. 

One  farmer  who  is  successful  in  the  control  of  this  disease 
patrols  his  orchard  with  the  help  of  two  bright  children  sitting 
beside  him  on  a  democrat.  The  children  receive  a  nickel  for 
every  infected  twig  they  discover,  and  one  may  be  sure  that  none 
escapes  them,  yet  the  father  says  the  work  is  cheap  at  that. 

If  it  were  possible  to  destroy  the  insects  that  carry  blight,  the 
problem  of  control  would  be  very  simple.  Some  are  difficult  to 
destroy,  while  others,  especially  honey  bees,  we  do  not  wish  to 
injure.  In  answer  to  the  question  whether  honey  bees  should  be 
kept  in  an  orchard,  we  would  say  that  they  are  unquestionably 
very  active  agents  in  disseminating  the  blight  bacteria  during 
blossoming  time,  and  that  if  sources  of  infection  are  near  and 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS  1047 

oozing,  the  presence  of  colonies  of  bees  in  an  orchard  will  result 
in  a  general  infestation.  They  will  not  carry  the  bacteria,  how- 
ever, unless  the  latter  are  oozing  from  infested  areas,  and  the 
bees  cannot  inoculate  any  part  of  the  tree"  except  the  blossom. 
We  believe  that  these  insects  do  far  too  much  good  in  cross-pol- 
linating flowers-  to  exclude  them  if  we  could,  and  that  our  efforts 
at  control  would  better  be'  directed  toward  cleaning  up  sources  of 
infection.  Control  measures  directed  toward  sucking  and  biting 
insects  are  helpful  in  reducing  the  number  of  new  infections. 

As  the  bacteria  are  ordinarily  unable  to  enter  uninjured  tissue, 
spraying  the  trees  with  a  fungicide  is  not  effective.  None  of  the 
numerous  blight  remedies  on  the  market  that  we  have  tried  have 
proved  effective  in  controlling  this  disease,  and  -some  of  them  have 
injured  the  tree.  Growers  should  not  buy  such  remedies  except 
for  experimental  purposes. 

When  blight  infections  become  general  in  an  orchard,  efforts 
at  control  by  removal  of  infected  areas  may  be  unavailing.  An 
attempt  should  then  be  made  to  stop  growth  and  harden  the  wobd 
by  ceasing  cultivation  and  even  by  seeding  to  a  cover  crop;  in 
fact,  unless  one  is  prepared  to  fight  blight,  intensive*  cultivation 
and  fertilization  may  prove  to  be  impracticable. 

Certain  varieties,  especially  Kieffers  and  Seckel,  usually  have 
a  shorter  susceptible  period  than  do  most  other  trees  and  are  there- 
fore less  likely  to  become  blighted.  Cases  are  known,  however, 
in,  which  orchards  of  large  Kieffer  trees  have  become  badly 
blighted  and  in  the  nursery  these  varieties  blight  as  badly  as  any. 
Grafting  susceptible  varieties  on  such  stock  with  the  idea  of 
avoiding  blight  has  not  given  general  satisfaction. 

The  method  of  control  outlined  will  not  prove  successful  unless 
the  measures  recommended  are  regularly  and  systematically  car- 
ried out.  The  person  engaged  in  it  should  study  the  disease  in 
order  to  be  able  to  recognize  all  its  stages  and  all  the  forms  in 
which  it  may  appear,  not  permitting  other  work  to  interfere  at 
any  time.  For  this  reason,  the  general  farmer  is  not  prepared 
to  fight  fire  blight,  and  in  fact  there  are  comparatively  few  grow- 
ers prepared  to  do  it.  Those  who  wish  to  practice  good  cultural 
methods  and  to  keep  the  disease  under  control  would  do  wisely 
to  employ  a  person  capable  of  carrying  on  the  work  for  them. 


1048 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  Si  ATE 


By  devoting  all  his  time  to  the  work  such  a  man  will  be  able  to 
handle  about  forty  to  fifty  acres  of  ten-year-old  trees;  older 
trees  will  require  more  time  than  do  younger  ones.  A  group 
of  growers  having  a  small  area  may  combine  to  employ  such  a 
man  during  the  growing  season.  An  area  considerably  larger 
could  be  handled  by  a  man  of  ability  if  <vumcient  assistance  were 
placed  at  his  command. 

PEAR  SCAB 


This  disease  greatly  resembles  the 
scab  of  apple,  and  the  causal  organ- 
isms of  each  are  closely  related.  The 
disease  is  widely  distributed  and  prob- 
ably occurs  wherever  pears  are  grown 
commercially.  In  the  United  States, 
it  is  reported  most  commonly  from  the 
northern  section,  but  its  attacks  have 
been  severe  even  in  California.  It 
occurs  most  abundantly  during  moist 
cool  weather,  and  sections  where  such 
weather  prevails  are  most  likely  to  be 
troubled. 

The  Flemish  Beauty  is  especially 
susceptible  to  the  disease  both  in  nur- 
sery and  in  orchard,  although  scab  is 
said  to  occur  on  such  varieties  as  Summer  Doyenne,  Duchess, 
Clairgeau,  Sheldon,  Seckel,  Anjou,  and  Lawrence,  while  LeConte, 
Kieffer,  and  Bartlett  are  less  likely  to  be  affected. 

Symptoms  and  Cause  of  Scab 

The  disease  attacks  leaves,  twigs,  and  fruit.  The  spot  on  the 
leaves  is  characterized  by  dark  olivaceous  strands  radiating  from 
a  center  over  the  leaf  surface.  The  spots  may  occur  on  either 
surface,  and  while  not  large  they  may  be  so  numerous  that  the 
entire  leaf  is  covered  with  them.  Badly  affected  leaves  are  usually 
much  puckered  or  curled.  On  the  fruit  the  spots  are  similar 
although  the  growth  is  denser  (Fig.  324).  If  the  scab  becomes 
extensive  on  the  fruit  during  its  growth,  severe  cracking  results. 


FIG.  324. —  SCAB  ON  FRUIT 
OF  PEAR.  NOTE  CRACKS 
DUE  TO  SCAB 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS  1049 

This  cracking  is  commonly  associated  with  the  presence  of  the 
disease  on  the  Flemish  Beauty.  On  the  twigs,  the  disease  appears 
as  blisters,  which  later  break  open,  giving  the  twig  a  rough  scabby 
appearance. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Venturia  pyrina,  which 
produces  its  summer  spores  in  abundance  in  the  scab  spots.  These 
spores  are  commonly  disseminated  by  wind,  and  during  cool  moist 
weather  will  germinate  and  infect  the  tender  leaves,  fruit,  or  twigs. 
Such  infections  result  in  new  spots  that  in  turn  produce  more 
spores. 

While  it  is  known  that  the  fungus  may  pass  the  winter  in  lesions 
on  infected  twigs  where  summer  spores  are  produced  the  follow- 
ing spring,  it  has  been  shown  that  it  also  passes  the  winter  in  the 
fallen  leaves  that  were  scabby  when  alive.  On  these  leaves  mi- 
nute fruit  bodies  are  produced  from  which  during  April  or  May 
sexual  spores  are  discharged,  and  these  caught  by  air  currents 
are  carried  to  the  opening  buds.  Early  infection  takes  place  from 
these  during  favorable  weather. 

Methods  of  Control 

The  disease  on  pears  may  be  more  difficult  to  control  than  apple 
scab  because  the  fungus  is  able  to  pass  the  winter  in  infected 
twigs.  However,  thorough  applications  of  either  bordeaux  mix- 
ture, 4-4-50,  or  lime-sulphur  solution,  1-50,  made  at  the  proper 
time  will  give  good  results,  especially  if  made  year  after  year. 
Foliage  injury  has  sometimes  resulted  from  an  application  of  lime- 
sulphur  so  that  bordeaux  mixture  may  be  preferable.  The  first 
application  should  be  made  when  the  petals  show  pink  but  before 
the  blossoms  open;  the  second,  soon  after  petals  fall;  and  a 
third,  about  two  weeks  later.  As  in  the  case  of  apple  scab,  other 
applications  may  be  necessary  if  wet  weather  prevails. 

LEAF  SPOT 

In  the  United  States  leaf  spots  occur  commonly  wherever  pears 
are  grown,  in  both  nursery  and  orchard.  While  Kieffer  and  a  few 
others  show  resistance,  most  varieties  are  susceptible  in  varying 
degrees.  The  disease  occurs  only  on  the  leaves,  but  the  tree  may 
be  reduced  in  vigor  from  an  early  defoliation  brought  about  by  an 


1050 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


attack.  The  spots  on  the  leaves  vary  in  size  from  a  pinhead  to 
a  pea.  They  are  round,  oblong,  or  irregular  areas  with  curved 
or  angular  margins.  The  center  is  somewhat  transparent  and 
gray  in  color,  this  color  being  especially  noticeable  on  the  upper 

surface.     Within  the  affected  area  one 

can  plainly  discern,  especially  in  old 
leaves,  several  minute  black  specks, 
the  fruit  bodies  of  the  causal  fungus 
(Fig.  325). 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  fungus 
Mycosphaerella    seniina,  which     pro- 
duces numerous  needle-shaped  spores 
in  minute  fruit  bodies,  mentioned  as 
occurring  in  the  spots  on  the  leaves. 
The    spores    adhering  to    each    other 
are  forced  out  of  the  fruit  bodies  in 
long,     dark-colored,    ropelike     strands 
and  are  disseminated  to  other  leaves 
by  wind   or  by  spattering  raindrops. 
In  the  presence  of  moisture  the  spores 
germinate  and  infect  the  leaf. 
The  fungus  winters  on  the  fallen  leaves  and  produces  there  the 
winter  fruit  bodies  from  which  sexual  spores  are  discharged  dur- 
ing the  following  spring.    These  are  responsible  for  bringing  about 
the  first  infection  of  the  year. 

The  disease  can  be  largely  prevented  by  the  applications  given 
for  the  control  of  pear  scab. 


FIG.  325. —  LEAF  SPOT  ON 
PEAR 


LEAF    BLIGHT 

This  disease  is  general  in  the  Appalachian  region  and  occurs 
commonly  in  practically  all  nursery  districts.  In  New  York  it 
is  said  to  be  more  abundant  in  the  orchards  of  the  Hudson  Valley. 
It  may  become  severe  on  pears  and  quinces  and  is  reported  to 
attack  hawthorne,  apple,  and  a  few  other  related  plants.  Most 
varieties  of  pears  are  susceptible,  although  Duchess  and  Kieffer 
are  reported  to  be  resistant,  and,  of  varieties  in  the  nursery,  the 
Kieffer,  Angouleme,  and  Flemish  Beauty  are  said  to  be  freest 
from  p.tt--"k 


DISEASES  OF  PEARS 


1051 


FIG.  326. —  LEAF 
BLIGHT  ON 
QUINCE 


The  disease  causes  a  spotting  of  the  leaves,  twigs,  and  fruit. 

The  spots  on  the  leaves  are  small  and  on  the  upper  surface  show  as 

reddish  circular  areas  surrounded  by  a  dark 

border.     Later  the  spots  become  dark-colored, 

and  a  minute  elevation  may  be  seen  at  the 

center.    When  the  attack  is  severe,  the  leaves 

become  yellow  or  brown  and  readily  fall  off. 

The  spots  on  the  leaves  can  be  distinguished 

from    leaf    spot    because    they    are    smaller, 

more  circular  in  outline,  and  more  brightly 

colored,  especially  when  young,  and  also  by 

the  absence  of  the  numerous  minute  black 

bodies.      The  spots  on  the  fruit  are  red  at 

first    but    become    dark-colored    later.      The 

fruit  may  become  cracked  as  a  result  of  the  attack  much  as-  when 

badly  affected  by  scab.     The  appearance  of  the  disease  on  the 

twigs  is  similar  to  that  on  the  leaves.  The  spot  may  enlarge  so 
as  to  encircle  the  twig,  thereby  causing  it 
to  die.  Quince  stock  and  pear  seedlings  are 
said  to  be  especially  susceptible. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  fungus 
Fabrea  maculata,  which  produces  its  sum- 
mer spores  in  the  center  of  the  spots  above 
described.  These  are  disseminated  in  the 
moist  weather  of  summer.  The  fungus  may 
winter  over  in  the  infected  twigs,  but  infec- 
tion in  spring  is  commonly  brought  about 
by  sexual  spores  produced  on  the  fallen 
leaves  in  which  the  fungus  has  wintered. 

Either  bordeaux  mixture  of  standard 
strength  or  lime-sulphur  solution  1-50  ap- 
plied as  for  pear  scab,  will  control  the  dis- 
ease should  it  appear  in  the  orchard. 


FIG.  327.—  LEAF 
BLIGHT  ON 
FRUIT  OF  PEAR 


PACKING  AND   MARKETING  PEARS 
ARTHUR  FARRAND,  "  THE  PINES,"  HUDSON,  N.  Y. 

Today  we  have  a  state  law  regulating  the  grading  and  packing 
of  apples,  which  requires  that  the  name  and  address  of  the  packer, 
and  the  grade  of  the  fruit,  be  plainly  branded  on  each  barrel. 
This  law  does  not  apply  to  pears;  consequently  each  grower  has 
his  own  way  of  packing  and  grading,  which  places  the  buyer  at 
a  disadvantage  unless  he  is  familiar  with  the  methods  of  the 
grower.  I  believe  we  should  have  a  law  governing  the  grading 
and  branding  of  pears  as  well  as  of  apples. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  PROPER  PACKING 

During  the  past  season  some  fruit  growers  tried  packing  their 
best  pears  in  bushel  baskets,  but  this  plan  did  not  prove  satis- 
factory, since  much  of  the  fruit  did  not  stand  up  well  in  transit 
and  arrived  at  its  destination  in  a  badly  bruised  condition.  Not- 
withstanding this  fact  the  fruit  sold  for  more,  in  comparison,  than 
if  it  had  been  in  barrels.  I  have  always  contended  that  our  better 
grade  of  pears  should  be  boxed,  and  should  be  put  up  in  an 
attractive  manner.  Although  this  will  require  more  care  and 
expense,  I  firmly  believe  the  grower  would  be  well  paid  for  the 
extra  trouble. 

New  York  State  has  made  great  strides  in  the  last  few  years  in 
producing  pears  of  extra  fine  quality.  The  flavor  of  New  York 
State  pears  is  now  better  known,  and  there  is  a  greater  demand 
for  them  than  for  the  California  fruit.  The  latter  has  had  the 
preference  on  account  of  good  color  and  attractive  packing.  How- 
ever, it  is  inferior  in  flavor,  being  necessarily  picked  green  for 
shipment  three  thousand  miles. 

We  have  been  packing  in  standard  barrels,  according  to  three 
grades:  Fancy,  No.  1,  and  No.  2.  Our  fancy  grade  consists  of 
the  largest  pears  of  uniform  size  and  at  least  90  per  cent  free 
from  worm  holes,  scale,  or  other  defects.  In  our  No.  1  grade  are 
the  pears  next  in  size,  but  not  below  two  and  one-half  inches  in 

[1052] 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING-  PEAKS 


1053 


1054  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

diameter;  there  are  also  at  least  90  per  cent  free  from  worm  holes, 
scale  or  other  defects.  The  No.  2  grade  would  properly  be  called 
seconds.  They  are  not  so  uniform  in  size,  and  are  only  80  per 
cent  free  from  defects.  In  this  grade  we  put  pears  under  two  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter.  We  plate  all  barrels  with  two  layers, 
and  use  corrugated  caps  top  and  bottom,  except  on  the  No.  2  grade. 

ESTABLISHING   A   MARKET 

Our  fruit  is  sold  mostly  through  commission  houses  in  New 
York  City;  but  occasionally  we  have  sold  to  speculators.  It  has 
been  our  custom  for  several  years  to  place  the  name  of  our  farm, 
and  the  owner's  name  and  address,  on  all  barrels  of  our  better 
grade  of  fruit,  and  I  believe  this  has  had  much  to  do  with  obtain- 
ing good  prices,  because  by  this  method  our  pack  and  brand  is 
better  known. 

An  instance  occurred  a  few  years  ago  that  thoroughly  convinced 
us  of  the  importance  of  a  uniform  and  honest  pack,  and  of  a  trade 
mark.  Our  shipments  were  all  made  by  boat,  arriving  in  New 
York  the  next  morning.  When  making  the  first  shipment  of 
Bartletts  we  wrote  our  commission  house,  as  is  our  custom  with 
each  shipment,  and  requested  a  telegram  advising  us  as  to  the  price 
for  which  the  pearse  sold  (each  day's  sales  are  immediately 
reported  by  wire  and  in  this  way  we  keep  in  close  touch  with  mar- 
ket conditions,  which  is  very  important).  Report  of  sale  of  our 
second  shipment  was  received  by  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
This  early  report  puzzled  us,  because  in  the  rush  season  the  boat 
is  very  often  late  in  reaching  New  York,  and  it  is  sometime  noon 
before  shipments  are  delivered  to  the  consignee.  Several  weeks 
later,  while  the  writer  was  in  New  York,  this  promptness  in 
reporting  sales  was  explained.  It  seems  our  first  shipment  of 
Bartletts  was  solo!  to  a  large  dealer  in  Harlem,  and,  as  soon  as  a 
careful  examination  had  been  made,  he  immediately  telephoned 
our  commission  house  that  he  would  take  all  Bartletts  received, 
marked  "  The  Pines."  So,  when  our  commission  house  received 
word  of  the  quantity  we  had  shipped  the  night  before,  they  at  once 
reported  sale  by  telegram. 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  PEARS  1055 

I  think  this  should  convince  the  fruit  grower  that  if  he  expects 
satisfactory  prices  he  must  be  honest  with  his  packing  and  grad- 
ing; also,  that  the  establishment  of  a  trade  mark  is  not  only  a 
good  advertisement,  but  will  aid  in  marketing  his  fruit  quickly 
and  satisfactorily. 

SELLING    THROUGH    COMMISSION    HOUSES 

Many  fruit  growers  make  the  mistake,  and  we  have  in  the  past, 
of  consigning  shipments  to  half  a  dozen  different  commission 
houses.  This  simply  means  that  the  grower  is  competing  with 
himself,  and  the  results  will  not  prove  satisfactory. 

Another  important  matter  that  should  not  be  overlooked  is  the 
fact  that  many  commission  houses  have  become  extensive  specu- 
lators. This  means  that  the  chances  of  securing  good  prices  by 
selling  through  these  speculating  houses,  which  are  owners  of 
large  quantities  of  fruit,  are  few,  unless  a  price  limit  has  been 
placed  011  our  shipments.  When  prices  are  high  they  are  very 
likely  to  unload  their  own  fruit,  and,  when  prices  are  low,  it  is 
quite  probable  that  it  will  be  our  fruit  that  will  be  sold. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The  fruit  grower  should  first  endeavor  to  produce  first-class 
fruit.  Then,  if  he  handles  it  carefully  and  packs  it  honestly,  he 
will  readily  'find  a  profitable  market,  as  in  the  instance  above 
cited.  Doubtless  the  New  York  <State  Department  of  Foods  and 
Markets,  in  New  York  City,  will  aid  in  solving  the  marketing 
problem,  and  will  prove  a  help  to  the  grower. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  in  order  to  obtain  top  prices  our 
fruit  must  look  attractive,  and  must  be  uniform  in  size.  The 
more  attractive  the  package,  the  greater  the  advantage.  Appear- 
ances go  a  long  way  toward  making  a  good  sale.  The  grower 
should  put  the  name  and  address  of  his  farm  on  all  choice  fruit, 
whether  in  barrels,  boxes,  or  baskets.  Then  it  will  not  be  long 
before  there  is  a  call  for  his  brand. 


1056 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


TABLE  SHOWING 

NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS 

OF  PEARS 

IN  NEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES 

(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 

County 

Trees 

Bushels 

Albany     

43,404 

30,275 

Allegany     

10,649 

6,571 

Broome    

9,262 

6,498 

Cattaraugus     .  .  . 

10,059 

4,364 

Cayuga     

36,687 

23,088 

Chautauqua     .  .  . 

22,110 

13,633 

Chemung     

5,458 

4,589 

Chenango    

7,474 

6,650 

Clinton    

3,548 

1,880 

Columbia     

170,777 

121,691 

Cortland    

7,918 

4,994 

Delaware   

8,024 

6,971 

Dutchess    

34.870 

23,805 

Erie    

70,056 

31,327 

Essex    

„  1,527 

1,365 

Franklin    

291 

66 

Fulton    

1,188 

920 

Genesee    

85,035 

36,608 

Greene   

122,882 

75,902 

Hamilton 

Herkimer     

4,047 

4,479 

Jefferson    

2,896 

1,643 

Kings     

12 

5 

Lewis   

256 

186 

Livingston    

8,634 

4,562 

Madison     

6,563 

6,031 

Monroe    

192,134 

117,044 

Montgomery 

5,159 

2,742 

Nassau  

3,491 

4,746 

New   York    

19 

30 

Niagara     

381,710 

216,227 

Oneida     

9,860 

7,665 

Onondaga    

13,900 

11,959 

Ontario    

74,451 

45,927 

Orange   

33,098 

21,994 

Orleans    

196,513 

105,233 

Oswego    

101,412 

58,163 

Otsego    

10,358 

8,965 

Putnam    

3,149 

1,955 

Queens   

403 

372 

Rensselaer     

28,049 

28,727 

Richmond    

478 

213 

Roekland   

11,166 

8,661 

St.  Lawrence   .  .  . 

428 

330 

Saratoga    

15,718 

10,427 

Schenectady 

4,719 

3,613 

Schoharie    

8,671 

6,488 

Schuyler    

5,888 

4,359 

Seneca    

29,468 

23,066 

Steuben    

17,555 

12,269 

Suffolk  

15,038 

6,779 

Sullivan     

6,762 

4,227 

Tioga    

6,596 

4,942 

Tompkins    

16,609 

12,613 

Ulster    

95,392 

68,307 

STATISTICS  —  PEARS  1057 

County  Trees  Bushels 

Warren    795  473 

Washington    9 , 382  7 , 662 

Wayne 102,279  78,034 

Westchester    9,350  10,620 

Wyoming    25,420  12,519 

States    32 , 549  17 , 635 


The    State     2,141,596  1,343,089 


THE  PEACH 


The  ripest  peach  is  highest  on  the  tree." 

JAMES  WHITCOMB   RILEY 

[1059] 


N  IAGARA 


PEACHES    IN    EASTERN    NEW    YORK 

PERCY  L.  HUESTED 
Fruit  Grower  and  Nurseryman,  Blauvelt,  Rockland  County,  N.  Y. 

In  Eastern  New  York  today  more  peaches  are  grown  than 
were  grown  twenty-five  years  ago,  but  not  better  peaches.  The 
fine-flavored  peaches  of  the  Persian  type  have  practically  been 
dropped  from  the  planters'  lists,  and  Wheatland,  Globe,  Melaca- 
toon,  Crawfords,  and  Reeves  Favorite  are  set  no  more  except  in 
home  gardens.  Delicate  peaches  of  the  Early  Rivers  and  Horton 


FIG.  329.—  Yorxo  PEACHES  TIIRIVIXCJ  ox  SOIL  OF  SLATE  ROCK,  ORCHARD  OF 
PERCY  L.  HUESTED,  BLAUVELT,  N.  Y. 

Rivers  type  are  also  gone.  The  old  varieties  are  not  dropped 
because  of  their  quality,  however,  but  because  growers  found 
that  far  larger  yields  per  acre  were  more,  profitable,  and  other 
varieties  were  more  frost-proof,  and  because  all  fruit  dealers  insist 
that  a  quality  of  the  Elberta  level  is  high  enough.  What  the  fruit 
trade  likes  is  a  peach  of  good  appearance,  fair  size,  and  good 
keeping  quality. 

Elberta  has  the  lead  in  the  plantings  because  of  its  good  yields, 
large  size,  and  regular  cropping  habit.     No  peach  makes  more 

[1061] 


1062  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

money  for  the  growers,  and  none  pleases  the  fruit  trade  better. 
It  marks  the  high  tide  of  the  peach  supply  and  in  "its  season  has 
no  real  competitor.  At  long  intervals  the  consumers  mention 
Morris  White,  Crawford,  Old  Mixon,  Heath  Cling,  or  some  other 
old  favorite,  but  for  the  present-day  grower  and  dealer  alike  the 
ideal  varieties  would  be  a  series  of  Elberta  types  covering  the 
season  from  beginning  to  end.  On  the  introduction  of  Elberta,  it 
was  promised  that  a  new  race  of  peaches  would  supply  something 
like  this,  but  today  few  peaches  match  the  Elberta  with  season 
earlier  or  later. 

DESIRABLE  VARIETIES  AND  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  J.  H.  Hale  is  a  new  yellow  peach  fruiting  just  with  El- 
berta in  1915.  It  may  displace  Elberta  or  be  a  competitor  for 
first  place  in  the  midseason  week.  An  earlier  yellow  peach  is 
lacking.  The  Wilma  is  another  of  the  new  varieties  offered  as 
a  new  Elberta  seedling  with  season  a  week  later. 

The  growers  who  do  not  feel  that  their  entire  plantings  should 
be  Elberta  because  of  the  rush  and  lower  prices  consequent  dur- 
ing Elberta  week,  therefore  plant  a  succession  of  varieties  be- 
ginning with  Greensboro,  which  ripens  in  late  July  and  early 
August.  Its  size  is  large,  its  buds  are  hardy,  and  it  does  not  rot 
so  rapidly  as  some  of  the  extra  early  kinds  do. 

Mayflower  is  still  earlier,  but  suitable  for  home  use  only. 
After  Greensboro,  the  Waddell  gives  satisfaction  as  a  home  gar- 
den white  peach  with  most  brilliant  red  skin.  The  growth  is  not 
the  most  vigorous,  and  commercial  growers  have  dropped  it  on 
that  account. 

Carman  is  a  hardy  peach  most  precocious  in  its  bearing  habit 
and,  while  like  all  the  early  peaches  it  is  a  cling  or  semi-cling, 
yet  is  in  good  demand,  and  its  appearance  has  made  it  as  many 
friends  in  the  market  as  its  free  bearing  habit  has  on  the  farm. 
Thinning  and  high  feeding  are  essential  with  it. 

Heiley,  or  Early  Belle,  follows  as  a  freestone  peach  with 
tender  skin  and  some  liability  to  rot  in  wet  seasons. 

Champion  is  larger,  and  when  ripened  on  the  trees  none  is 
better  in  flavor.  It  bears  heavily  throughout  a  long  period,  and 


PEACHES  ix  EASTERN  NEW  YORK 


1063 


if  it  were  entirely  a  freestone  no  doubt  it  would  rule  the  mid- 
early  season.  Summer  spraying  checks  its  tendency  to  rot  and 
spot  and  also  adds  to  its  keeping  quality.  The  Champions  sel- 
dom reach  the  consumer  with  the  flavor  for  which  they  are  noted, 
since  usually  they  are  picked  too  green  in  order  that  they  may 
carry. 


FIG.  330. —  ELBERTAS,  UNGRADED.    FROM  THE  ELEVENTH  CROP  ON  TREES 
SET  BY  PERCY  L.  HUESTED,  BLAUVELT,  N.  ¥.,  IN  1902 

Belle  of  Georgia  is  often  mentioned  as  a  white  Elberta.  Its 
f jui It  is  that  it  overlaps  with  Elbertas  most  years,  and  the  last 
half  of  its  crop  must  be  sacrificed  at  low  prices  in  consequence. 
This  peach  is  of  the  largest  size,  a  freestone,  and  is  hardy  in  bud. 

Following  Elberta,  Frances  has  proved  a  variety  of  solid  merit 
among  yellow  peaches.  The  size  averages  below  Elberta,  but  its 
yield  seems  equal. 

Stevens  Rareripe  is  distinctly  a  Hudson  Valley  peach.  Else- 
where its  tendency  to  rot  and  spot  has  made  it  worthless,  although 
summer  spraying  will  doubtless  widen  the  territory  over  which 
it  may  be  grown.  It  is  a  large  freestone  peach  with  red  color 


1064 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


PEACHES  IN  EASTERN  NEW  YORK  1065 

ever  white  flesh,  and  as  it  ripens  in  cool  weather  it  can  be  shipped 
well  to  any  market.  In  many  cases  the  trees  do  not  bear  heavily 
when  young,  but  its  regular  bearing  habit  has  made  the  peach 
very  popular. 

Iron  Mountain  follows  Stevens  and  lacks  the  good  red  color  of 
the  latter.  No  peach  is  of  better  flavor  when  canned,  and  none 
is  a.  more  dependable  bearer.  It  must  be  thinned  to  give  size, 
but  will  then  yield  white  fruit,  large  to  very  large. 

Wlllett  is  a  firm-fleshed,  large  yellow  peach,  ripening  in  early 
October.  It  does  not  bear  while  young,  but  seems  to  be  un- 
e<pialed  at  its  season  for  home  use  and  commands  a  favorable 
place  in  the  markets.  Its  quality  and  wood  growth  are  of  the 
Crawford  order. 

During  October  the  supply  of  yellow  peaches  is  chiefly  of  Sal- 
way,  Smock,  and  Wonderful,  all  peaches  that  are  firm  and  some- 
what dry  of  flesh  and  not  extra  high  in  flavor.  They  yield  a 
heavy  crop  per  acre,  when  well  fertilized. 

Bray's  Kareripe  is  preferred  by  many  as  a  late  peach,  but  the 
tendency  is  to  largely  cut  off  the  planting  of  extra  late  peaches  in 
eastern  New  York,  since  consumption  falls  off  heavily  after 
October  first. 

LOCATION   AND   CLIMATIC    CONDITIONS    TO   BE   CONSIDERED 

The  foregoing  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a  grower  in 
the  most  southern  part  of  the  Hudson  Valley,  where  peach  crops 
have  not  failed  for  the  past  eleven  years.  There  is  much  varia- 
tion in  the  climate  of  eastern  New  York  as  regards  temperature. 
Further  north'  during  this  eleven-year  period  several  crops  have 
been  lost  through  the  winterkilling  of  buds  by  severe  midwinter 
cold,  and  damage  through  the  light  frosts  at  blossom  time  has 
also  been  frequent.  Varieties  particularly  hardy  with  respect  to 
midwinter  cold  are  Crosby,  Hill's  Chili,  Carman,  Salway,  and 
Stevens. 

The  spring  frosts  at  blossom  time  are  the  most  damaging  in  the 
southern  states,  but  in  New  York  these  late  frosts  are  of  lesser  im- 
portance, and  varieties  that  do  not  open  all  their  blossoms  at  once 
rarely  lose  a  percentage  of  bloom  large  enough  to  affect  the  crop. 
All  the  peaches  of  the  class  of  Greensboro,  Waddell,  and  Carman 


1066 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


set  abundant  buds  and  do  not  open  them  all  at  one  period  as  do 
the  peaches  of  the  Crawford  class. 

Local  elevation  saves  many  peach  buds  from  frost  damage  of 
either  midwinter  or  spring  type,  when  peaches  on  lower  sites  suf- 
fer. Contrary  to  prevalent  opinion,  orchards  well  fed  and  culti- 
vated suffer  less  winter  injury  than  do  those  in  which  the  trees  are 
making  scanty  growth. 

LIABILITY   TO   DISEASE 

Scale,  yellows,  and  little  peach  are  diseases  that  show  no  prefer- 
ence for  one  variety  of  peach  over  another  so  far  as  the  writer's 
observation  goes.  Cases  in  which  the  loss  through  yellows  is 
heavier  in  one  variety  than  in  another  are  frequent,  but  seem  to 
be  traceable  either  to  tainted  stock  of  a  particular  kind  or  to  the 
fact  that  the  initial  outbreak  was  in  a  block  of  a  particular  kind 
and  adjoining  trees  were  earlier  exposed  to  infection. 


FIG.   332. —  SMALL   TRUCKS  WHICH   CAN  DELIVER  ONLY   LOCAL  LOADS 

WITH  ECONOMY 

With  respect  to  leaf  curl  and  brown  rot,  varieties  differ  much  in 
the  power  of  resistance.  Elberta  is  the  most  subject  to  leaf  curl, 
and  the  spraying  in  early  spring  or  midwinter  with  lime-sulphur 


PEACHES  IN  EASTERN  NEW  YORK 


1067 


at  scale  strength  can  be  omitted  only  at  considerable  risk.  Brown 
rot  difficulties  are  much  lessened  through  the  use  of  Scott's  unboiled 
lime-sulphur  mixture,  and  the  keeping  quality  of  the  fruit  it  im- 
proved. This  new  practice  of  summer  spraying  of  the  peach  seems 
likely  to  widen  the  territory  greatly  over  which  good  quality  stock 
may  be  produced,  and  the  hills  along  the  Hudson  may  in  conse- 
quence lose  their  advantage  long  enjoyed  in  that  favorable  eleva- 
tion where  the  production  of  clear  fruit  without  spraying  in 
summer  is  assured. 


I  ii..  333. —  TRUCK  READY  TO  LEAVE  ORCHARD  OF  H.  H.  BROWN,  MONSEY,  N.  Y. 
LOADS  OF  Six  TONS  ARE  NOT  UNUSUAL. 


The  progressive  peach  grower  must  be  prepared  to  change  varie- 
ties oftener  than  the  grower  of  other  tree  fruits  and  be  prepared  to 
fight  more  intense  battles  with  plant  diseases  than  other  growers. 
Few  peach  men  in  eastern  Xew  York  are  friendly  enough  with 
their  trees  to  make  prompt  use  of  the  axe,  but  without  it  the  little 
understood  diseases  of  yellows  and  little  peach  ordinarily  shorten 
the  life  of  the  orchard  far  below  the  allotted  span.  Relief  attained 
through  the  planting  of  immune  varieties,  a  practice  advocated  by 
some,  has  never  proved  effective  with  the  worst  foes  of  the  peach 
tree  in  eastern  Xew  York. 


1068  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


MARKET  CONDITIONS 

The  1915  season  showed  a  market  in  all  great  cities  filled  t 
overflowing.  Ruinous  prices  ruled  throughout  the  season.  Thirty 
years  ago  New  Jersey  lands  were  being  set  to  peaches  to  such  ex- 
tent that  many  areas  promised  to  be  simply  great  peach  plantations, 
but  low  prices  and  particularly  the  spread  of  scale,  yellows,  and 
other  troubles  wiped  out  the  industry.  Yellows  and  little  peach 
certainly  offset  new  plantings  now. 

Production  costs  in  the  southern  end  of  the  Hudson  Valley  are 
probably  as  low  as  anywhere  north  of  Delaware.  The  transporta- 
tion is  now  almost  universally  by  motor  truck  and  is  cheaper  and 
more  satisfactory  than  any  rail  service.  Notwithstanding  these 
advantages  only  a  select  few  of  the  varieties  can  be  grown  at  any 
considerable  profit  with  prices  at  the  level  of  the  past  season.  New 
varieties  may  and  probably  will  displace  most  of  the  kinds  de- 
scribed in  this  account,  and  particularly  would  firm,  large  yellow, 
freestone  kinds  find  places  in  the  early  season. 


PEACHES  IN  WESTERN  NEW  YORK 

E.  II.  ANDERSON,  LOCKPORT,  X.  Y. 
Farm  Bureau   Manager,  Niagara   County 

The  peach  section  of  western  Xew 
York  is' confined  to  the  northern  part  of 
the  counties  of  Xiagara,  Orleans,  Mon- 
roe, and  Wayne,  extending  back  from  the 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario  only  as  far  as  the 
ameliorating  influence  of  the  lake  is  felt. 
This  gives  an  area  varying  in  width  from 
six  to  ten  miles  and  nearly  one  hundred 
miles  long,  in  which  the  bulk  of  the 
peaches  are  grown. 
The  United  States  Census  of  1910  credits  Xew  York  State 
with  the  production  of  1,176,483  bushels  of  peaches,  of  which 
1,090,')T<S  bushels  were  produced  in  the  western  Xew  York  sec- 
tion. Since  this  Census  was  taken,  many  young  orchards  have 
come  into  bearing,  greatly  increasing  the  production. 


FIG.  334. —  LOOKING  NORTH  FROM  THE  RIDGE  ROAD  IN  NIAGARA  COUNTY 
(PEACH  Rows  NEARLY  ONE  MILE  LONG) 

SOILS   AND  FERTILIZATION 

From  surveys  covering  one  hundred  and  sixty  orchards  taken 
in  Monroe  and  Xiagara  counties,  it  was  found  that  the  majority 
of  the  peach  orchards  are  on  loamy,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soils  of  the 

[1069] 


1070 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


Dunkirk  Series.  These  soils  are  adapted  to  peach  growing  be- 
cause of  their  position  bordering  Lake  Ontario,  because  of  their 
natural  good  drainage,  and  because  their  warmth  produces  highly 
colored  and  well-flavored  fruit.  Owing  to  the  rapid  growth  made 
by  the  peach  and  the  type  of  soils  on  which  it  is  grown,  it  is  gen- 
erally found  necessary  to  add  fertility  to  the  soil.  In  most  cases 
an  occasional  light  application  of  barnyard  manure  is  used.  Some- 
times this  is  supplemented  with  commercial  fertilizers. 

CULTURAL     METHODS 

The  peach  produces  its  fruit  on  wood  of  the  previous  year's 
growth.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  for  considerable  new 
growth  to  be  produced  each  season,  in  order  to  obtain  a  crop  the 
following  year.  This  growth  must  be  well  matured  in  order  that 
the  fruit  buds  may  withstand  the  cold  snap  of  our  winters. 
It  has  been  found  practicable  to  adopt  a  system  of  cultivation 
that  will  encourage  rapid  growth  of  wood  early  in  the  season  and 
check  this  growth  so  that  it  will  properly  mature  before  winter 
sets  in. 


FIG.  335. —  TREES  PLANTED  18  FEET  APART  NEARLY  TOUCH  AT  FIVE 
YEARS.  CLEAN  CULTIVATION  is  FOLLOWED  UNTIL  JULY  15,  THEN 
WEEDS  ARE  ALLOWED  TO  GROW. 


PEACHES  IN  WESTERN  NEW  YOEK  1071 

The  cultural  system  that  is  generally  meeting  with  favor  is  to 
plow  or  cultivate  three  inches  deep  as  early  in  spring  as  possible, 
ordinarily  about  the  first  of  May;  then  to  cultivate  with  a  harrow 
every  ten  days  or  after  every  rain,  in  order  to  conserve  soil  mois- 
ture. This  cultivation  is  usually  discontinued  about  July  15.  In 
case  of  a  large  crop  of  fruit  or  a  dry  period,  cultivation  is  often 
continued  well  into  August. 

Under  the  present  system  of  intensive  clean  cultivation,  the 
humus  is  rapidly  exhausted  from  the  soils,  and  in  order  to  keep 
the  vigor  and  frmtfulness  of  the  orchard,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
add  barnyard  manure.  The  same  results  are  being  obtained  with 
leguminous  cover  crops  wherever  they  are  being  consistently  used. 

PRUNING  METHODS 

If  not  pruned,  the  peach  tree  naturally  grows  upright,  adding 
one  year's  growth  above  another  and  forming  only  a  few  main 
limbs  that  are  long  and  brittle  and  break  easily  under  a  load  of 
fruit.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  adopt  a  system  of  prun- 
ing that  will  spread  the  tree,  conserve  its  vigor,  renew  its  growth, 
and  keep  the  bearing  wood  low.  This  means  that  in  the  young 
orchard  fh'e  pruning  shears  must  be  freely  used  in  order  to  start  a 
low  head  with  spreading  top,  which  is  done  by  cutting  the  pre- 
vious year's  growth  well  back  to  an  outside  bud. 

The  open  center  peach  tree  is  found  to  be  most  practicable. 
This  allows  for  a  better  circulation  of  air  and  more  sunlight,  thus 
producing  fruit  of  good  color  and  reducing  its  liability  to  fun- 
gous diseases. 

The  mistake  is  commonly  made  of  planting  peach  trees  too 
close  together,  the  distance  varying  all  the  way  from  16  x  16  feet 
to  20  x  20  feet,  a  common  distance  being  18  x  18  feet.  This  dis- 
tance is  not  sufficient  for  mature  trees;  the  trees  crowd  and  are 
forced  to  grow  high.  A  better  distance  would  be  from  20  to  25 
feet  each  way  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  ground.  With 
this  distance,  enough  space  would  be  allowed  to  adopt  a  system  of 
pruning  which  would  start. the  head  low  and  spread  the  top,  keep- 
ing the  bearing  wood  low  so  that  the  fruit  could  always  be  har- 
vested with  a  five-foot  stepladder.  .  The  writer  prefers  that  these 
heads  be  kept  so  low  that  even  a  stepladder  is  unnecessary  in  har- 
vesting. Many  of  the  older  orchards  were  started  with  high 


1072  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


PEACHES   i.\    WKSTKIJX  XKW  YORK  1073 

heads,  and  are  now  so  high  that  it  is  slow  and  expensive  work  to 
harvest  the  fruit.  The  only  disadvantage  of  low-headed  trees  is 
that  it  is  not  so  easy  to  work  with  a  team  among  them,  but  the  low 
extension  orchard  tools  now  on  the  market  overcome  this  objection. 
The  advantage  of  the  low  head  is  its  economy  of  time.  It  saves 
time  in  pruning  and  spraying,  but  most  important  of  all,  it  saves 
time  in  harvesting.  A  picker  can  harvest  from  50  to  100  per 
cent  more  fruit  in  a  given  length  of  time  when  no  ladder  is 
needed. 


FIG.  337. — -VIEW  IN  A  25-YEAR-OLD  PEACH  ORCHARD  IN  NIAGARA 
COUNTY.  ALTHOUGH  THRIFTY,  THE  TREES  ARE  so  HIGH  THAT 
HARVESTING  is  EXPENSIVE 

The  period  during  which  cultivation  can  be  done  extends  over 
several  weeks,  while  harvesting  must  be  accomplished  in  a  few 
days;  sometimes  it  is  a  matter  of  a  few  hours.  The  low-headed 
tree  must  be  accepted  in  western  New  York  as  a  matter  of  econ- 
omy.* 

VARIETIES 

The  commercial  peach  of  western  New  York  is  the  Elberta. 
Considerably  over  one-half  of  the  planting  is  of  this  variety. 
Xcxt  in  importance  is  the  Early  Crawford.  This  is  a  favorite  in 
the  older  orchards,  but  because  it  is  not  prolific  on  all  soils,  it  is 


*  See  article  on  pruning  the  peach,  by  Professor  M.  A.  Blake,  p.  1084. 


1074  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK   STATE 

being  supplanted  by  other  varieties.  A  survey  taken  in  1915, 
covering  83,900  bearing  trees  in  Xiagara  County  showed  the  prin- 
cipal varieties  in  order  of  importance  to  be :  Elberta,  Early  Craw- 
ford, Late  Crawford,  St.  John,  Xiagara,  Reeves,  and  Chairs 
Choice. 

MARKETING 

Although  the  peach  production  of  western  Xew  York  is  large 
and  the  fruit  very  perishable,  -the  industry  is  entirely  unorgan- 
ized. There  is  no  uniform  type  of  package  or  standard  for  pack- 
ing. In  one  section  the  fruit  is  sold  by  the  pound,  the  buyer 
doing  the  packing;  in  another,  the  grower  sells  in  bushel  baskets, 
while  his  neighbor  packs  in  Jerseys  or  "  high  hats,"  both  selling 
to  a  local  dealer  or  consigning  to  some  commission  man. 


FIG.  338.— Ax  8-YEAR-OLD  PEACH  TREE  THAT  HAS  XOT  BEEN 
HEADED  BACK.  TWO-THIRDS  OF  FRUIT  MUST  BE  PICKED  FROM 
A  LADDER 

The  presence  of  one  or  more  cold  storage  plants  in  nearly  every 
producing  center  makes  it  possible  for  the  fruit  to  be  pre-cooled 
instead  of  rushing  it  on  the  market.  This  has  been  a  great  saving 
to  the  peach  growers  of  this  section.  During  the  present  season  at 
many  points  there  has  been  a  serious  effort  to  pack  and  market 
peaches  through  a  central  packing  house.  This  system  commends 
itself  as  an  important  step  in  the  solution  of  our  complicated 
marketing  problem. 


PEACHES  IN  WESTERN  NEW  YORK  1075 

THE  OUTLOOK 

The  peach  crop,  always  uncertain  and  never  as  profitable  as  it 
is  reputed,  has  received  several  severe  setbacks  in  the  past  four 
-casons.  The  crops  of  1912  and  l()lf>  were  so  large  that  it  was 
impossible  for  growers  to  harvest  them  at  a  profit,  and  thousands 
of  bushels  rotted  on  the  ground.  During  the  winter  of  1913-1914 
the  peach  fruit  buds  were  so  damaged  by  the  cold  that  the  result- 
ing crop  in  the  fall  of  1914  was  almost  nil.  Thus  only  the  season 
of  1913  remains  during  recent  years  in  which  the  peach  growers 
could  figure  much  profit.  Under  such  conditions,  there  is  not 
sufficient  profit  in  the  industry  to  maintain  itself. 


I;K;.  339. —  AN  S-YEAR-OLD  PEACH  TREE,  PRUNED  TO  KEEP  THE  BEARING 
WOOD  Low.  ALL  FRUIT  CAN  BE  PICKED  FROM  THE  GROUND.  (COM- 
PARE FIGS.  336  AND  339.) 

It  is  not  probable  that  such  a  general  failure  as  that  of  1914 
will  happen  again  in  several  years,  although  there  is  always  such 
a  chance.  There  is,  however,  every  reason  to  expect  the  repetition 
"f  the  crop  of  1915.  With  peaches  from  the  Virginias,  Maryland, 
Ohio,  Michigan,  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York  all 
coming  on  the  market  at  the  same  time,  the  only  hope  for  the  re- 
newal of  profitable  peach  growing  under  our  present  system  of 
marketing,  lies  in  the  fact  that  western  New  York  may  have  a 
4 


1076 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


crop  of  peaches  when  the  crop  fails  in  one  or  more  of  the  other 
competing  states.  While  this  is  quite  possible,  it  is  too  uncertain 
to  appeal  to  the  conservative  grower. 

Our  solution  seems  to  be  to  face  the  fact  of  a  probable  con- 
tinuation of  large  production ;  and  to  prepare  to  meet  this  by  or- 
ganizing for  the  purpose  of  more  economic  packing,  for  a  standard 
pack,  for  extending  our  distribution,  and  for  advertising  to  in- 
crease consumption.  Without  organization  a  repetition  of  the 
experience  of  this  season  must  be  expected. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  PEACH,  AND 
MARKETING 

A.  T.  HENRY,  WAKLINGFORD,  CONN. 


CHOICE    OF    LOCATION 

The  selection  of  the  orchard  site  is  one  of  the  important  points 
in  successful  peach  growing.  If  unsuitable,  no  amount  of  work 
can  make  the  orchard  profitable.  Under  no  conditions  should 
trees  be  planted  on  wet  land,  and  often  even  hilltops  and  hillsides 
are  wet.  If  drains  can  be  laid  and  other  conditions  are  favorable, 
such  hinds  can  be  used,  provided  they  are  not  too  steep  for  the 
use  of  a  spraying  machine.  Air  drainage  is  just  as  important 
as  water  drainage.  An  orchard  located  in  a  hollow  is  more 
likely  to  be  frozen  in  winter ;  and,  if  it  escapes,  the  fruit  is  likely 
to  l)e  affected  by  fungous  diseases. 

Large  orchards  should  not  be  set  out  unless  peach  trees  arp 
known  to  bear  fairly  regular  crops  in  the  immediate  vicinity; 
often  only  five  miles  means  the  difference  between  good  crops  and 
no  fruit,  especially  if  protection  is  afforded  by  a  body  of  water. 
Hillsides  or  elevated  land  is  generally  best  for  orchards,  although 
the  same  protection  from  frosts  is  often  secured  on  level  land  by 
a  body  of  water.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  growing  of 
peaches  on  comparatively  low,  level  land  in  Michigan  and  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  Severe  cold  in  winter  is  not 
to  be  feared  so  much  as  late  spring  frosts  after  the  buds  are 
started. 

Kxcessively  rich  land  is  not  best  for  a  peach  orchard,  for  on 
such  land  the  trees  will  grow  instead  of  bearing.  Rather  select  a 
poorer  soil,  and,  by  means  of  fertilizers  and  cover  crops,  produce 
a  tree  that  grows  moderately  and  hears  well.  Some  very  profitable 
orchards  are  located  on  thin  gravelly  and  stony  soils,  or  on  very 
light  sandy  land. 

If  the  proposed  orchard  site  contains  boulders  or  stumps,  it  is 
best  to  remove  them  beforp  the  trees  are  planted  and  so  avoid 
breaking  or  injuring  the  young  trees,  accidents  that  are  almost 
H-rtain  to  occur  if  large  rocks  or  stumps  are  removed  after  the 
orchard  is  set.  If  the  land  is  rough,  it  is  often  desirable  to  grow 

[10771 


1078  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

a  crop  of  corn  or  any  tilled  crop  a  year  before  the  trees  are  set, 
sowing  clover  or  other  legumes  at  the  last  cultivation  of  the  crop. 
I  consider  it  very  important  to  fit  the  land  properly  before  plant- 
ing the  orchard;  far  better  wait  a  year  than  to  set  in  poorly  pre- 
pared land. 

VARIETIES 

With  the  orchard  site  selected  and  the  land  properly  fitted,  we 
must  decide  on  what  varieties  to  set.  Here  again,  a  poor  selec- 
tion means  failure,  and  no  amount  of  work  can  atone  for  a 
mistake.  If  the  peaches  are  grown  for  shipment  to  distant  mar- 
kets, enough  of  each  variety  should  be  planted  to  produce  car- 
lots;  if  the  markets  are  closer,  or  express  rates  are  not  too  high, 
more  varieties  can  be  planted  and  smaller  lots  shipped. 

The  larger  markets  prefer  a  yellow  peach;  local  markets  can 
often  be  educated  to  take  the  better  quality  white  fruit.  As  a 
rule,  the  white  varieties  are  better  bearers  and  more  hardy  than 
the  yellow  sorts.  A  variety  may  succeed  in  one  section  and  be 
an  utter  failure  in  another,  hence  no  list  of  varieties  can  be 
given.  Find  out  what  varieties  do  well  in  neighboring  orchards 
and  confine  the  large  plantings  to  these;  have  a  trial  orchard  and 
test  out  all  new  and  untried  varieties  before  planting  them  on  a 
large  scale. 

DISTANCE    BETWEEN    TREES 

Peach  trees  are  set  from  fifteen  to  twenty-two  feet  apart  each 
way,  depending  on  soil  and  methods  of  pruning.  Generally,  they 
are  planted  too  close.  If  set  a  good  distance  apart  it  is  not  only 
easier  to  care  for  the  orchard,  but  the  fruit  develops  better,  as 
each  tree  has  more  air  and  sunshine  and  more  moisture  for  the 
roots.  If  the  land  is  reasonably  level  it  can  be  marked  out  with 
a  marker  and  furrows  plowed  each  way,  the  trees  being  set  at  the 
intersections.  If  rough,  the  orchard  must  be  lined  out,  sighting 
practiced  and  a  measuring  pole  used.  Whichever  method  is  fol- 
lowed, the  rows  should  be  as  straight  as  possible,  for  if  crook( 
the  young  trees  are  more  likely  to  be  injured  in  cultivation. 

IMPORTANCE    OF   GOOD   STOCK   AND   LOW    HEADING 

Nursery  stock  should  be  fresh  and  in  good  condition;  if  ii 
.jured  by  freezing  or  drying  out  at  any  time,  it  is  very  difficull 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOE  THE  PEACH,  AND  MARKETING     1079 

to  produce  a  creditable  orchard.  Most  commercial  orchardists 
prefer  to  head  the  trees  moderately  low  —  from  one  to  two  and  a 
half  feet  high.  This  low  head  reduces  the  cost  of  spraying  and 
harvesting.  The  trees  should  be  cut  off  at  a  height  desired  to 
form  the  head,  and  the  side  limbs  either  shortened  in  or  entirely 
removed.  All  broken  roots  should  be  removed  and  remaining 
roots  shortened  to  six  to  ten  inches  long.  Any  trees  showing 
badly  deformed  main  root,  root  knot,  or  crown  gall  should  be 
burned.  Trees  should  be  carefully  examined  for  borers  at 
the  time  of  setting;  this  task  is  often  neglected  and  borers  thus 
obtain  a  start  in  the  orchard.  Yearling  tnees  of  medium  size 
are  generally  used,  although  in  the  south  June  buds  are  often 
used. 

MANNER  OF  SETTING  TREES 

A  good-sized  hole  should  be  dug,  and  the  trees  should  be  planted 
an  inch  deeper  th,an  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  Good  top  soil 
should  l>e  carefully  worked  in  among  the  roots  and  packed  very 
firmly  around  them.  This  is  very  important ;  at  the  same  time, 
it  must  be  left  loose  on  top  to  act  as  a  mulch  and  conserve  the 
moisture.  If  the  trees  are  planted  late  or  if  the  soil  is  very  dry, 
water  may  be  poured  around  the  roots,  but  generally  this  is 
neither  helpful  nor  necessary.  A  little  commercial  fertilizer  may 
be  sprinkled  on  top  of  the  ground,  but  under  no  conditions  should 
any  be  placed  in  the  hole  with  the  tree  roots.  After  planting,  a 
mulch  of  coarse  manure  or  litter  may  be  spread  around  the  tree. 
This  will  conserve  moisture,  which  is  needed  for  the  first  year 
far  more  than  is  fertilizer. 

CULTIVATION    AND    INTERCROPPING 

The  first  summer  any  hoed  crop  can  be  grown  among  the 
trees,  provided  it  is  not  planted  too  close  to  them.  The  trees 
should  be  hoed  or  cultivated  frequently,  perhaps  every  ten  days 
until  midsummer,  after  which  they  should  be  left  alone  to  allow 
them  to  ripen  their  wood  properly.  Many  a  promising  young 
Orchard  has  been  ruined  by  sowing  a  grain  crop  among  the  trees; 
lil«>  growing  a  runt  pig  or  calf,  getting  an  orchard  started  prop- 
erly is  nearly  impossible  if  it  has  once  been  set  back. 

If  possible,  sow  a  legume  in  the  hoed  crop ;  sow  it  by  all  means 


1080  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

if  no  other  crop  is  grown.  This  will  add  vegetable  matter  and 
nitrogen  to  the  soil.  The  cover  crop  should  be  plowed  under  the 
following  spring  before  it  has  grown  enough  to  dry  out  the  soil. 
Hoed  crops  may  also  be  grown  among  the  trees  the  second  year. 
The  third  summer  any  cultivated  crop  can  be  grown,  but  gen- 
erally the  trees  need  all  the  space.  Cultivation,  should  start  early 
and  cease  in  midsummer,  care  being  taken  not  to  break  any  large 
roots.  On  steep  sidehills,  strips  of  grass  may  be  left  to  prevent 
soil  washing. 


PROTECTION    FROM   ANIMALS 


Before  winter  sets  in,  the  young  tree  should  be  banked  up  to 
prevent  damage  by  mice  and  rabbits ;  also  to  prevent  wind  from 
loosening  the  young  trees.  A  mound  of  earth  around  the  tree 
prevent  water  from  freezing  around  the  tree  collar.  In  northern 
sections,  at  least,  it  is  desirable  to  bank  the  trees  up  for  the 
second  winter,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season's  growth. 


FERTILIZERS 

Early  in  spring,  if  the  land  is  poor,  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizer  may  be  applied  to  the  tree  so  as  to  secure  an  early,  rapid 
growth.  If  the  soil  is  rich,  fertilizers  may  not  be  necessary,  and 
may  even  be  harmful  by  forcing  too  great  a  growth ;  they  should 
be  applied  to  produce  a  good  growth.  Fertilizers  should  be  ap- 
plied early,  preferably  before  plowing,  it  being  our  aim  not  to 
force  too  great  a  growth  and  yet  keep  the  tree  thrifty.  The  trees 
should  be  well  cultivated  in  the  third  summer,  and  a  leguminous 
crop  should  be  sown  in  midseason. 

To  fertilize  a  bearing  orchard  properly  is  a  difficult  problem, 
and,  because  of  variable  soils  and  conditions,  one  which  each 
individual  must  work  out  for  himself. 

BORERS    SHOULD    BE    REMOVED 

The  trees  should  be  examined  regularly  once  each  year  fc 
borers.     They  are  generally  more  prevalent  in  sandy  soil  ai 
gravelly  knolls  and  near  woods.     The  presence  of  borers  is  indi- 
cated by  the  gum  and  shavings  around  the  base  of  the  tree, 
any  are  found  they  should  be  dug  out  with  a  knife ;  or,  if  deep  ii 


Lt 
0 


('i  I.TIKAL  MKTIIOOS  FOR  THK  PEACH,  AND  MARKETING      1081 

the  hark,  they  in;iy  he  hooked  out  with  a  wire.  Up  to  the  present 
time,  anti-borer  preparations  have*  killed  more  trees  than  they  have 
eaved. 

CARK    WIIK.X    KIM   ITI\(i 

I'nder  favorable  conditions,  when  the  orchard  is  four  years 
old,  there  should  be  a  crop  of  fruit.  The  cover  crop  should  be 
plowed  under  early,  care  being  taken  not  to  plow  too  deeply  near 
the  tree  and  so  to  injure  the  main  roots. 

Here,  good  judgment  must  be  used  in  regard  to  fertilizers  and 
cultivation,  or  a  rank,  sappy  tree  will  be  formed.  Such  a  tree 
is  liable  to  winter  injury.  With  the  present  unsettled  condition 
in  the  fertilizer  market,  it  is  hard,  to  say  what  to  use.  Most  fertil- 
izers are  high  in  price  and  potash  is  unobtainable,  so  that  now  as 
never  before  we  should  be  sure  before  we  go  ahead.  If  an  expe- 
rienced grower,  one  may  use  what  has  given  good  results  in  the 
past ;  if  without  previous  experience,  use  various  combinations 
and  note  results.  An  excess  of  nitrogen  will  make  large,  poorly- 
colored  fruit,  and  fruit  that  is  unsatisfactory  for  shipping. 

HARVESTING 

Picking  is  generally  done  in  half-bushel  baskets,  and  the  fruit 
is  hauled  into  the  packing  shed  in  spring  wagons.  The  trees 
should  be  picked  over  several  times,  the  best  colored  and  ripest 
fruit  being  taken  off  at  each  picking.  Elbertas  are  generally 
<•  leaned  at  two  or  three  pickings,  while  some  varieties,  such  as 
( '1  lampions,  may  require  twice  as  many,  as  the  fruit  ripens  so 
unevenly.  Much  skill  is  required  to  pick  peaches  at  just  the 
proper  time,  and  the  beginner  would  be  wise  in  following  the 
better  growers  to  know  just  when  to  pick  the  various  varieties. 

In  the  packing  shed  the  fruit  must  be  handled  quickly  and  care- 
ful ly,  and  each  day's  picking  should  be  on  the  way  to  market  by 
night.  The  various  grades  and  sizes  are  determined  by  the  market 
for  which  the  fruit  is  intended.  Various  mechanical  graders  are 
used,  but  as  a  rule  these  are  not  satisfactory,  except  where  fruit  is 
picked  while  very  hard.  Great  care  must  be  used  in  all  packing 
operations  to  see  that  the  fruit  is  not  bruised.  The  packed  fruit 
>li<nild  be  hauled  to  market  or  railroad  station  on  spring  wagons. 

The  first  and  most  important  point  in  packing  fruit  is  common, 


1082  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

everyday  honesty.  Everyone  admits  it,  yet  looking  over  the  market 
we  must  admit  not  everyone  follows  his  own  advice,  for  in  some 
unknown  way  the  small  peaches  settle  to  the  bottom.  The  better 
the  pack  and  fruit,  the  more  easily  they  may  be  sold  for  good, 
prices. 

MARKETING 

We  now  come  to  the  most  important  part  of  our  work  —  market- 
ing the  fruit.  An  orchard  may  be  well  located  and  properly  grown, 
and  yet  not  be  profitable,  simply  because  the  fruit  is  not  properly 
marketed.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that  wherever  growers  are  far  from 
market  we  find  associations  and  marketing  agencies,  and  wherever 
orchards  are  near  markets  few  such  organizations  exist.  In  gen- 
eral, these  organizations  are  a  benefit  to  the  grower. 

No  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down  about  marketing  except  that 
the  fruit  must  be  picked  honestly  and  handled-  quickly  and 
carefully.  If  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  to  distant  markets  it 
must  be  picked  much  greener  than  if  it  reaches  the  consumer 
the  day  after  picking.  All  fruit,  and  peaches  especially,  should 
be  very  carefully  handled,  as  a  slight  bruise  will  develop  in  trasit 
into  a  rotten  spot.  Few  growers  handle  the  fruit  carefully  enough. 
Keep  in  close  touch  with  the  man  who  sells  the  fruit  and  pick  it 
as  he  directs,  for  he  can  see  very  quickly  whether  you  are  picking 
it  too  green  or  too  ripe. 

The  receiver  of  the  fruit  is  a  very  important  link  in  the  chain  of 
success,  and  the  grower  should  get  in  close  touch  with  him.  Select 
very  carefully  the  man  who  is  to  receive  and  sell  the  fruit. 

Commission  men  are  often  called  a  dishonest  set  of  men,  but 
our  personal  experience  with  them  has  been  very  satisfactory. 
Select  the  man  carefully,  and  then  put  up  such  a  grade  of  fruit  as 
he  can  sell  to  his  best  trade;  he  will  very  quickly  see  that  if  he 
doesn't  give  you  a  square  deal  some  one  else  will.  As  in  every 
other  line  of  business,  the  man  who  tries  to  cheat  others  cheats 
himself. 

A  special  trade  can  easily  be  established  for  fruit  of  superior 
quality  pack.  If  peaches  are  grown  only  in  a  small  way  and  near 
to  market,  the  grower  can  sell  them  personally  to  stores  and  con- 
sumers, and  secure  a  larger  percentage  of  the  consumer's  dollar. 


Cri.  i  i  I.-AI.   MKTHODS  FOR  TIIK  PEACH,  AND  MAUKKTIXG      1083 

Whether  the  grower  sells  direct  to  the  consumer,  sells  to  stores, 
ships  on  commission,  or  sells  his  fruit  through  the  auction,  he 
should  aim  to  have  a  regular  supply. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  definite  rules  as  to  just  how 
the  peaches  should  ho  graded.  Aim  to  please  the  customer,  and 
never  forget  that  if  the  small,  poor  peaches  are  put  in  the  bottom 
of  the  basket,  someone  will  find  them  and  afterwards  avoid  the 
brand.  Put  the  name  of  the  grower  in  every  package  and  make 
cvrry  package  worthy  of  the  name. 


PRUNING   THE    PEACH 

PROFESSOR  M.  A.  BLAKE 
Horticulturist,  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 

Pruning  has  undoubtedly  been  a  subject  of  discussion  since  the 
early  days  of  fruit  production,  and  yet  opinion  differs  widely  as 
to  the  best  practice.  The  reasons  for  this  are  the  variations  in 
habit  of  growth  of  different  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  in 
the  same  locality,  variations  in  habit  of  growth  of  the  same  variety 
in  different  localities,  variations  in  soil  and  climatic  conditions, 
and  fads  in  pruning.  Some  persons  assert  that  pruning  is  purely 
an  art,  others  that  it  is  strictly  a  science,  and  yet  when  most  suc- 
cessfully practiced  it  is  really  science  and  art  combined. 

In  order  to  improve  and  insure  the  mechanical  strength  of  the 
tree,  the  operation  should  not  differ  greatly  anywhere,  while  in 
order  to  secure  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  fruit-bearing  sur- 
face the  same  general  plan  should  be  followed  in  most  cases.  The 
severity  of  the  pruning  and  the  degree  to  which  twigs  and  leading 
branches  should  be  cut  back  calls  for  judgment  on  the  part  of  each 
grower,  however.  It  is  commonly  recognized  that  rate  and  vigor 
of  growth  directly  affect  the  size  and  the  color  of  the  fruit,  and  the 
rate  of  growth  is  of  course  affected  by  the  severity  of  the  pruning. 
An  expert  grower  estimates  the  amount  of  pruning  necessary  each 
season  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  year  by  year.  It  requires 
experience,  good  judgment,  and  an  intimate  knowledge  of  vari- 
eties and  their  habits  of  growth.  For  example,  in  order  to  obtain 
fruit  of  large  size,  the  Hiley  peach  requires  more  severe  pruning 
when  it  comes  into  full  bearing  than  does  the  Elberta.  The  actual 
amount  of  wood  growth  pruned  off  in  any  one  season,  therefore, 
should  be  varied  according  to  the  amount  of  growth  made  by  the 
trees.  It  is  here  that  the  ability  of  the  fruit  grower  is  fully  tested. 

There  are  many  fads  in  pruning  that  affect  the  form  of  the 
tree  slightly  and  yet  have  little  or  no  economic  importance  as 
regards  the  size  and  quality  of  the  crop.  There  are  also  extremes 
in  pruning  that  decrease  the  yields  and  sometimes  injure  the  trees. 

[1084] 


I  I(»NV 


PKMM-:  TIIK    PKACII 


1085 


Certain  definite  rules  and  some  general  ones  can  be  given,  how- 
ever, for  the  pruning  of  peach  trees  in  moderation,  which  will 
insure  success  if  applied  with  judgment  to  meet  the  conditions  of 
varietv  and  location. 


PRUXIXG  OF  NURSERY  TREES  AT  TIME  OF  PLANTING 

When  purchased  from  the  nursery  one-year-old  peach  trees  con- 
sist of  a  straight  whip  with  few  or  numerous  side  branches,  accord- 
ing to  the  vigor  of  the  tree  (Fig.  340).  All  experienced  fruit 


FIG.  340. —  VIGOROUS  ONE-YEAR-OLD  NUR- 
SERY TREE  AT  LEFT;  SLENDER  ONE-YEAR- 
OLD  TREE  AT  RIGHT;  JUNE  BUD  IN 
CENTER 


growers  admit  that  the  trees  should  be  cut  back  severely  at  time 
of  planting,  but  opinion  differs  as  to  whether  the  head  of  the  tree 
should  be  formed  at  6,  12,  18,  24,  or  30  inches  from  the  ground. 
The  assertion  that  the  more  severely  the  tree  is  cut  back  at  time  of 
planting  the  easier  it  will  be  to  gather  the  fruit,  has  little  basis  of 
fact.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  first-class  fruit  in  quantity  on 
secondary  side  branches  that  start  out  within  less  than  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  Trees  that  branch  freely  at  the  surface  of  the 


1086  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

ground  are  also  troublesome  in  harboring  the  borer,  an  insect 
that  proves  much  more  difficult  to  control  than  the  San  Jose  scale, 
if  it  is  especially  prevalent. 

The  type  of  secondary  pruning  adopted  is  also  of  much  more 
importance  in  maintaining  fruit  production  close  to  the  ground 
than  is  a  matter  of  six  inches  or  more  in  the  length  of  the  trunk. 
In  many  orchards  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  tree  with  a 
trunk  twenty  inches  high  is  as  easy  to  spray  and  manage  and 
harvest  as  one  with  a  trunk  six  inches  high.  Too  much  importance 
is  often  placed  on  the  exact  height  of  the  trunk.  If  it  measures 
anywhere  from  six  to  twenty  or  even  twenty-four  inches,  a  ti 
that  is  economical  to  manage  can  be  produced.  The  writer  do< 
not  favor  cutting  the  trees  back  to  six-inch  stubs,  since  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  remove  borers  from  such  trees  and  experiments  show  that 
trees  of  large  caliper  make  less  growth  the  first  season  when  cut 
back  as  severely  as  this.  Trees  with  trunks  from  36  to  48  inches 
in  length,  however,  are  more  likely  to  be  blown  over  by  high  winds 
than  are  trees  with  shorter  trunks.  A  slender  nursery  tree  of  five- 
eighths-  to  three-and-four-tenths-inch  caliper  will  have  but  few 
slender  side  branches  below  the  point  where  it  is  cut  back  at  time 
of  planting,  and  these  may  as  well  be  pruned  off.  If  the  tree  is 
heavily  branched,  the  side  branches  below  the  point  of  heading- 
back  may  be  cut  to  from  four  to  six-inch  stubs.  All  large  roots 
should  be  cut  off  smoothly  so  that  they  will  be  about  six  inches  in 
length. 

PRUNING  AT   CLOSE  OF  FIRST  SEASON 

Very  little  or  no  summer  pruning  should  be  done  during  the 
first  summer  after  planting.  If  shoots  develop  low  down  on  the 
trunk  as  well  as  at  the  top,  however,  they  may  be  rubbed  off  soon 
after  they  develop,  but  during  the  first  summer  thinning  out  of 
the  number  of  branches  that  form  the  head  is  not  advised,  since  it 
is  almost  certain  to  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

In  the  dormant  season  following  the  first  summer's  growth  after 
planting,  the  first  real  pruning  of  the  orchard  begins.  At  this 
time  the  fruit  grower  should  select  the  main  branches  that  are  to 
form  the  framework  of  the  tree  in  future  years,  and  on  the 
character  of  the  selection  made  largely  depends  the  future  strength 
of  the  tree  and  its  ability  to  produce  heavy  crops  without  serious 


How  TO  PRUNE  THE  PEACH 


1087 


breakage  of  branches.  Before  beginning  the  work  of  pruning 
one  should  decide  as  to  the  height  of  head  or  length  of  trunk  pre- 
ferred, even  though  this  is  determined  to  a  considerable  extent  by 
pruning  at  time  of  planting. 
It  might  be  supposed,  for 
example,  that  one  preferred 
to  have  the  main  branches 
formed  within  from  16  to  24 
inches  from  the  ground.  As 
the  tree  is  approached  the 
best  two,  three,  or  four  well- 
placed  branches  between  those 
distances  could  be  chosen  and 
all  other  branches  immedi- 
ately pruned  off.  This  sim- 
plifies matters  and  results  in 
rapid  and  economic  work. 


afc 


FIG.  341. —  WELL-FORMED,  COMPACT 
ONE-YEAR-OLD  TREE  IN  THE  OR- 
CHARD; SHOULD  NOT  BE  SEVERELY 
CUT  BACK 


Number  of  Brandies  to  Form 

the  Head  of  the  Tree 
Definite     rules     are     some- 
times   formulated    as    to    the 
number     of     branches      that 

sli<  >uld  form  the  head  of  the  tree.  Three  has  been  the  number 
most  commonly  insisted  on,  and  yet  exactly  the  same  number  in 
each  case  is  not  of  economic  importance.  A  few  facts  that  have 
a  bearing  on  this  point  may  be  set  forth  as  follows : 

1.  More  than  two  main  branches  are  desirable  even  if  well 
placed,  for  in  such  a  case  the  entire  load  of  fruit  must  be  sup 
ported  at  two  points.     Strong  trees  can  be  built  with  two  main 
branches,  however,  under  some  conditions. 

2.  Three  or  four  main  branches  allow  for  a  good  balance  of  the 
top. 

3.  More  than  four  branches  of  large  size  tend  to  encourage  the 
formation  of  too  thick  a  top,  although  a  few  small  branches  that 
are  not  really  leaders  do  not  affect  the  problem  in  any  material 
degree. 

4.  A  slender,  flat-topped,  or  relatively  small  growing  variety, 
such  as  Waddell,  Greensboro,  or  Smock,  might  well  be  allowed  to 


1088 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


form  a  greater  number  of  main  branches  than  a  large,  upright, 
thick-topped  variety,  such  as  Stump,  Reeves,  or  Late  Crawford. 
One  arrangement  to  be  avoided  is  the  selection  of  branches  that 
issue  at  exactly  the  same  point  on  the  trunk  although  on  opposite 
sides.  This  commonly  results  in  a  weak  tree  structure,  especially 
if  the  nursery  tree  as  planted  died  back  slightly  at  the  top. 


FIG.    342. — •  REEVES   TREE   NOT   CUT   BACK   DURING   ITS   GROWTH. 
IT  LACKS  STRENGTH  AND  is  DIFFICULT  TO  SPRAY  WELL 

Cutting  Back  the  Branches 

After  one  has  selected  the  main  branches,  the  next  question 
to  decide  how  severely  they  shall  be  cut  back  in  the  first  season,  iJ 


How  TO  PRUNE  THE  PEACH 


1089 


at  all.  It  should  first  be  determined  how  such  pruning  will  affect 
the  development  of  the  tree.  An  upright  growing  variety  tends  to 
make  a  high-topped  tree  that  is  easily  broken  by  heavy  crops  of 
fruit,  if  the  leading  branches  are  not  cut  back  and  the  bearing  sur- 
face becomes  higher  from 
the  ground  each  year.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  flat-top- 
ped variety  may  become  too 
spreading  and  flat  if  al- 
lowed to  grow  without  any 
cutting  back  of  the  tips  of 
branches.  A  slight  cutting 
back  of  the  tips  of  the  main 
branches  of  a  one-year-old 
tree  tends  to  make  the  top 
more  compact,  causes  the 
leaders  to  form  more  sec- 
ondary branches,  and  re- 
sults in  a  stronger  tree  that 
is  less  subject  to  breakage. 
Too  severe  a  cutting  back  of 
the  main  branches,  how- 
ever, causes  a  thick,  vigorous  twig  growth  that  is  undesirable  and 
delays  fruiting. 

The  following  statements  may  be  followed  for  guidance : 

1.  A    well-formed,    compact,    one-year-old    tree,*    (Fig.    341) 
should  receive  only  a  slight  cutting  back  of  from  six  to  ten  inches 
on  each  leader  to  the  first  good  side  branch. 

2.  Certain  trees  are  poorly  balanced,  having  a  long  branch  on 
one  side  and  a  short  branch  on  the  other.    In  such  a  case  the  short 
branch  should  be  cut  little  if  at  all,  while  the  long  branch  should 
be  cut  severely  enough  nearly  to  balance  the  tree. 

3.  Occasional  trees  may  form  a  single  shoot  growing  irregularly 
or  perhaps  without   side  branches.      Such   a  branch,   or   shoot, 
should  be  cut  back  to  the  point  where  one  desires  the  head  or 
main  branches  of  the  tree  to  form. 


FIG.    343.— ONE-YEAR-OLD    TREE    BE- 
FORE PRUNING 


*  The  term  "  one-year-old  "  is  applied  to  trees  that  have  made  one  season's 
growth  in  the  orchard. 


1090 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  will  be  seen  that  severe  cutting 
back  of  one-year-old  trees  is  permissible  only  in  the  case  of  irreg- 
ular and  poorly  formed  trees.  It  is  advisable,  however,  at  least  to 
cut  off  the  terminal  bud  on  the  main  branches  of  even,  well- 
formed  trees. 


PRUNING  DURING  THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD  YEARS 

In  some  cases  summer  pruning  may  be  of  great  value  in  secur- 
ing well-formed  trees  without  resorting  to  severe  winter  pruning. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  sea- 
son's growth  irregular  trees 
may  have  required  severe 
pruning,  and  this  may  induce 
the  production  of  numerous 
shoots  and  suckers,  many  of 
which  are  not  desired  and 
cause  the  top  of  the  tree  to 
become  too  dense.  When  the 
trees  first  begin  to  make 


growth 


FIG.  344. —  ONE-YEAR-OLD  TREE 
AFTER  PRUNING.  TIPS  OF 
BRANCHES  SHOULD  BE  CUT  BACK 
SLIGHTLY. 


in  early  spring,  such 
extra  shoots  can  be  quickly 
rubbed  off  with  the  fingers; 
much  time  can  thus  be  saved 
in  pruning  later.  The  severe 
thinning  out  of  twigs  and 
shoots  in  midsummer  is  not 
recommended,  however.  In 
case  the  suckers  were  not 

rubbed  off  as  they  formed,  summer  pruning  might  be  practiced  to 
remove  them  as  late  as  July,  but  the  work  should  have  been  done 
previously  as  the  shoots  form. 

If  a  young  tree  is  making  an  irregular  growth,  the  tips  of 
leading  shoots  may  be  pinched  off  not  later  than  July,  and  a 
better-branched  top  may  thus  be  obtained.  A  general  clipping,  or 
cutting  back,  of  the  shoots  of  well-formed  trees  is  not  recommended 
in  summer,  however,  nor  is  pruning  advisable  after  the  third 
summer  when  the  tops  of  all  trees  should  be  well  formed. 


How  TO  PRUNE  THE  PEACH 


1091 


PEUNING   IN    DORMANT   SEASON   AFTER  THE   FIRST   YEAR 

At  the  close  of  the  second  season's  growth  the  trees  will  have 
formed  many  secondary  branches,  and  the  leaders  will  have  in- 
creased in  height.  Pruning  should  then  consist  principally  in 
cutting  off  any  large  twigs  or  shoots  that  grow  directly  inward 
toward  the  center  of  the  tree  or  upward  in  the  center  of  the  tree, 
and  should  include  a  certain  amount  of  cutting  back.  Nothing  is 
gained,  however,  by  pruning  off  every  little  twig  on  the  inside  of 
the  top  of  the  tree  and  leaving  the  main  branches  bare.  The  small 
twigs  will  not  become  leaders  and  may  produce  fruit.  When  two 
side  branches  occupy  much  the  same  space  or  cross  one  another,  a 
choice  should  be  made  and  one  of  them  removed. 


•-    '     ^*^    •    ^f 

r-          S^,*2S^£ri 


?&m~^ 

r .'«.-"          .  '  ,  j. 


*      '~ 


FIG.  345.—  BY  SOME  CUTTING  BACK  OF   BRANCHES,   MORE   COMPACT   TREES 

ARE  FORMED 

The  severity  of  the  cutting  back  of  the  branches  should  be  based 
on  the  age  and  the  variety  of  the  tree  and  the  amount  of  growth 
that  has  been  made  the  previous  season.  During  the  second  and 
third  seasons,  the  tree  is  still  in  the  formative  stage  and  leading 


1092  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW   YORK   STATE 

branches  should  be  cut  back  to  the  first  or  second  good  side  branch, 
a  practice  that  will  result  in  a  better  spread  to  the  top  and  permit 
better  exposure  to  sunlight.  This  will  not  require  a  more  severe 
cutting  back  than  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  on  well-formed 
trees.  In  cases  of  irregular  growth  more  severe  pruning  may  be 
iiecessarv.  All  side  branches  that  have  made  a  growth  of  from 

*/  ~ 

eight  to  eighteen  inches  and  are  well  set  with  the  fruit  buds  should 
be  cut  back  from  six  to  eight  inches.  This  will  thin  the  set  of 
fruit,  but  will  increase  its  size  and  will  also  keep  the  tree  vigorous. 
In  pruning  the  peach  the  following  facts  should  be  kept  in 
mind : 

1.  During  the  first  three  years  severe  pruning  tends  to  delay 
fruiting  and  to  decrease  the  yield. 

2.  Moderate  pruning  increases  the  strength  and  vigor  of  the 
trees  Avithout  reducing  the  yield  of  fine  fruit. 

3.  Xo  pruning  tends  to  early  fruiting  and  maximum  yields  of 
smaller  fruit,  but  results  in  weaker  trees  that  are  subject  to  break 
age  and  a  shorter  commercial  life. 

4.  As  the  trees  come  into  full  bearing,  a  more  severe  cutting 
back  of  the  annual  growth  should  be  practiced  during  the  dormant 
season.     The  result  of  such  practice  will  be  larger  fruit,  less  ex- 
pense for  thinning,  and  more  vigorous  trees. 

5.  As  a  general  rule  one  might  say  that  about  one-half  of  the 
previous  season's  growth  should  be  cut  off  each  twig,  but  this 
should  be  varied  at  times  and  the  fruit  grower  must  make  a  study 
of  the  effects  of  pruning  so  that  he  may  properly  judge  conditions 
each  season.     The  formal  shearing  of  the  tops  of  peach  trees  to 
make  them  appear  like  a  hedge  is  not  considered  good  practice. 

PRUNING  FOLLOWING  WINTER  INJURY 

When  fruit  buoTs  are  destroyed  by  unfavorable  weather  during 
winter  and  early  spring,  a  more  severe  cutting  back  of  the  trees  is 
advisable.  This  is  especially  true  if  some  winterkilling  of  the 
twigs  has  occurred.  Even  in  mild  forms  of  winter  injury  the 
trees  are  likely  to  be  somewhat  weakened.  In  cases  where  nearly 
all  the  fruit  buds  are  killed  on  trees  in  full  bearing,  it  is  well  to 
cut  away  practically  all  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  and  if 
the  winter  injury  is  at  all  severe,  to  cut  well  into  the  two-year-old 
wood. 


How  TO  PRINK  THE   PKACII  1093 

I'Kl   .\IN<;    OK  OLD  TKKF.S 

After  the  peach  has  been  growing  from  eight  to  ten  years  in 
the  orchard,  the  trees  may  carry  a  considerable  amount  of  weak 
growth  or  have  become  too  small  to  spray  and  harvest  easily, 
especially  if  the  annual  pruning  has  been  neglected  for  one  year. 
In  such  a  case1  severe  cutting  back  of  all  branches  during  the 
dormant  season  will  result  in  a  new  and  vigorous  top  growth  that 
will  extend  the  commercial  life  of  the  orchard.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  pruning  should  extend  into  the  three-  and  four- 
year-old  wood.  Trees  are  sometimes  cut  back  almost  to  the  trunk, 
leaving  short  stubs  of  branches  that  may  be  four  inches  or  more  in 
diameter.  Such  a  severe  practice  is  seldom  productive  of  the  best 
results. 

QUALITY   OF   THE   PRUNING   WORK 

It  appears  hardly  necessary  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the 
thoroughness  with  which  pruning  is  done  determines  the  value 
of  the  work  and  that  all  large  branches  should  be  cut  off  smoothly, 
since  dead  or  dying  branches  and  stubs  form  breeding  places  for 
bark  beetles  and  other  orchard  enemies.  Trees  of  medium  size  in 
full  bearing  can  generally  be  pruned  at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  six 
trees  an  hour,  this  operation  including  the  cutting  back  of  the 
branches.  Trees  with  low  tops  can  be  pruned  .with  shears,  but 
large  trees  make  the  use  of  the  hand,  or  pole,  pruner  necessary 
in  order  to  do  the  work  rapid'y  without  a  stepladder. 

During  the  dormant  season  all  pruning  should  be  completed  be- 
fore spraying  for  scale  and  leaf  curl  begins,  since  it  reduces  the 
amount  of  time  and  material  required  for  the  work.  Branches  and 
twigs  cut  off  in  pruning  should  be  gathered  together  and  burned 
in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  insects  and  diseases  and  to  clear 
the  orchard  of  material  that  will  interfere  with  the  work  of 
spraying  and  cultivation. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH 


L.  F.  STRICKLAND 

Horticultural  Inspector,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Albany,  N.   Y. 

Like  other  deciduous  fruits,  the  peach 
has  its  pests  and  diseases.  In  the  follow- 
ing article  the  writer  mentions  certain 
points  not  commonly  emphasized  in  scien- 
tific literature,  but  points  which  in  prac- 
tice are  found  to  be  particularly  valuable. 
Field  workers  often  find  that,  in  combat- 
ing pests  and  diseases,  the  growers  have 
varying  degrees  of  success.  In  many 
cases  this  may  not  be  entirely  due  to  lack 
of  thoroughness  in  their  methods  4  but  to  a  lack  of  knowledge  of 
important  points  in  the  life  history  of  pests  or  diseases. 


INSECTS 

In  this  latitude  the  peach  is  attacked  by  eight  distinctive  insects, 
four  of  which  are  minor  in  importance.  In  this  bulletin  these 
insects  will  be  considered  in  the  order  of  importance  in  New  York. 

Black  Peach  Aphis 

The  black  peach  aphis  (Aphis  persicce  Niger  Ej  Sm.)  infests  the 
tender  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  peach,  although  the  serious  injury 
occurs  on  the  roots.  Its  presence  on  the  roots  is  suspected  when 
the  leaves  of  individual  trees  take  on  a  yellowed  sickly  appearance, 
each  leaf  of  the  affected  tree  being  yellowish  green,  except  the 
area  along  each  midrib  and  lateral  veins,  which  is  dark  green.  The 
leaves  develop  to  normal  size,  growth  is  checked,  and  serious  in- 
festations even  indirectly  cause  the  death  of  the  young  trees. 
Blocks  of  nursery  stock  are  often  found  slightly  infested,  but  the 
main  trouble  comes  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years  from  planting. 
Here  in  the  north  older  trees  are  seldom  found  seriously  infested. 

There  are  other  factors  that  are  supposed  to  cause  similar  foliage 

[1094] 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH  1095 

characters,  as  for  example  the  use  of  too  much  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izer. From  personal  experience  it  may  be  stated  that  close  ex- 
amination of  the  roots  of  such  trees  often  proves  that  there  is  no 
infestation  of  aphids,  and  inquiry  has  sometimes  revealed  that  no 
fertilizers  have  been  used  around  the  trees.  It  is  fair  to  suspect 
black  aphis,  however,  when  the  foliage  presents  the  leaf  character- 
istics. 

In  New  York  the  insect  appears  to  desire  the  environment  of  our 
sharp  lake  sands,  being  less  often  found  in  gravel,  stony,  clay, 
or  clay  loam  soils.  The  aphids  obtain  their  food  as  do  all  other 
nphids,  namely,  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  leaves  or  roots  of  the 
trees.  Each  mature  aphid  gives  birth  to  living  young,  so  that  under 
favorable  conditions  multiplication  takes  place  rapidly. 

Methods  of  control.  Nurserymen  and  fruit  growers  alike 
should  always  practice  fumigation  of  peach  stock.  Thorough 
fumigation  will  eliminate  this  pest  as  well  as  others  and,  if  prop- 
erly conducted,  will  not  injure  the  stock.  Since  the  insect  will  live 
for  some  time  in  soil  from  which  an  infested  tree  has  been 
removed,  it  is  wise  to  make  a  heavy  application  of  tobacco  dust. 
One-half  to  one  bushel  of  wood  ashes  mixed  thoroughly  through 
the  soil  of  the  infested  root  area  will  serve  to  eliminate  soil  infes- 
tation. Some  growers  have  succeeded  by  stimulating  the  trees  to 
rapid  growth  by  heavy  application  of  manure  and  by  thorough 
cultivation. 

Curculio 

The  work  of  the  curculio  (Cono- 
trachelus  nenuphar  Hbst.)  is  noted 
on  the  fruit.  The  pest  stings  the 
peach  sometimes  to  obtain  food  and 
at  other  times  to  make  a  crescent- 
shaped  groove  in  which  to  deposit  an 
egg.  The  saps  flow  freely  out  through 
the  wound  and  cause  gumlike  drops 
to  form  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit.  (b)  WORMY  FRUIT 
Occasionally  the  attacks  of  the  pest  are  serious ;  causing  deformed 
and  wormy  fruit  (Fig.  346,  b). 


1096  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Methods  of  Control.  Curculios  in  greater  or  less  numbers  are 
always  present  in  fruit  orchards.  It  is  a  question  whether  prevent- 
ive measures  would  be  economical  with  the  slight  infestation  com- 
mon in  New  York  orchards.  During  yearly  inspection  of  peach 
orchards  it  is  apparent  that  the  largest  infestations  take  place 
where  the  orchard  parallels  a  plum  block.  In  such  a  case  it  would 
seem  wise  to  control  the  curculio  in  the  plum  block.  This  can  be 
done  by  applying  a  poisoned  spray  as  soon  as  the  first  curculio 
mark  shows  on  the  plum,  using  the  following  formula:  lime-sul- 
phur, 1  gallon ;  arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds ;  water,  60  gallons. 

Plant  Bugs 

Both  the  plant  bugs  (Lygus  pra- 
tensis   L.    and   Lygus  invitus   Say) 
cause  more   or   less   injury    to    the 
fruit.     The   former   species   in  par- 
ticular causes  severe  damage  to  peach 
trees   in  the  nursery  row.     It   is  a 
sucking  insect,  and  both  nymphs  and 
FIG.  347.— WORK  OF  A  PLANT       adults   are   exceedingly   active  bugs. 
BuG  This  characteristic  makes  treatment 

of  the  pest  very  unsatisfactory. 

The  second  species  is  apparently  the  cause  of  most  of  the  trou- 
ble in  the  orchard,  regarding  which  growers  are  puzzled  when 
gum  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit.  Several  things  may  cause 
this.  The  writer  has  often  observed  injuries  on  the  peach  through 
which  the  exudation  of  sap  was  taking  place,  and  has  commonly 
found  peaches  along  a  woodland  to  be  thus  affected,  while  very 
little  injury  appeared  elsewhere  in  the  orchard.  In  such  cases  ex- 
amination has  shown  that  the  injury  was  not  that  of  curculio. 
Since  Professor  Parrot  and  Mr.  Hodgkiss*  discovered  that  L. 
invitus,,  the  false  tarnished  plant  bug,  causes  such  gumming  on  the 
fruit  in  confinement,  it  is  reasonable  to  suspect  that  the  same 
insect  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble  in  orchards  near  woodlands  or 
fence  rows.  The  insect  that  causes  most  of  the  trouble  is  a  suck- 
ing insect.  If  this  pest  is  the  false  tarnished  plant  bug,  it  closely 
resembles  the  former  species. 


Bui.  368,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.—  The  False  Tarnished  Plant  Bug  as  a  Pear  Pest. 


INSECTS  AND  DISK  ASKS   <»K  TIM-:    PKACII  1097 

Control.  When  much  injury  continually  occurs  to  the  fruit,  the 
environment  of  the  pcnch  should  he  changed  hv  eradicating  the 
sumach  and  wild  grapevines  along  the  border  of  the  orchard.  It 
docs  not  appeal-  necessary  or  practical  to  take  further  precau- 
tions for  the  trouble. 


San  Jow' 

A  knowledge  of  the  importance  of  San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus 
pemwiosus  ('omst.j  is  necessary,  because  the  peach  is  one  of  the 
favorite  hosts  of  the  insect.  When  scale  first  appeared  in  the 
orchards  of  western  Xe\v  York,  growers  thought  their  orchards 
were;  doomed.  .Many  growers  have  found  the  pest  difficult  to 
control,  but  it  can  be  rightly  said  that  its  inroads  have  been  a 
blessing  in  disguise  to  the  fruit  grower  because  they  have  taught 
him  the  value  of  sprays  and  forced  thoroughness  into  his  work. 
A  description  of  the  insect  will  be  found  on  page  1022. 

Control.  Even  if  a  tree  has  become  injured,  it  is  possible  to 
kill  the  scale  by  a  thorough  application  of  spray.  Lime-sulphur 
has  long  been  a  standard  spray  for  the  purpose,  not  only  because 
it  will  kill  scale  but  because  it  will  also  check  leaf  curl  and  is 
not  dangerous.  If  trees  are  thoroughly  infested  or  are  subject  to 
infestation,  the  lime-sulphur  should  be  used  as  follows:  lime- 
sulphur,  32  degrees  Eaume,  1  gallon;  water,  8  gallons. 

On  peaches  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  other  sprays  for  scale.  The 
application  of  the  formula  recommended  should  be  made  late  in 
fall  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  or  early  in  spring  before  the 
tip,  or  terminal,  buds  burst.  As  a  majority  of  the  scale  living 
over  winter  are  on  the  under  side  of  the  limbs  and  branches, 
it  is  imperative  that  a  thorough  application  should  be  given  to  the 
under  surface,  and  that  all  branches,  both  the  top  and  the  bottom 
thereof,  must  be  covered. 

Borers 

There  are  several  kinds  of  borers  that  infest  and  seri- 
ously injure  peach  trees  under  conditions  favorable  to  the  pest, 
but  only  two  of  these  are  generally  recognized  by  growers  as 
being  distinct  species.  The  two  commonly  known  species  are  shot- 
hole  and  peach-tree  borers.  Two  other  species  are  also  common 
in  New  York,  the  peach-twig  borer  and  the  lesser  peach-tree  borer. 


1098  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

The  latter  species  especially  is  often  confused  with  the  peach-tree 
borer  as  will  be  noted  in  the  following  descriptions : 

The  Peach  Tivig-borer.  While  this  borer  (Anarsia  Lineatella 
Zell.)  can  generally  be  found  in  the  orchards  of  western  Xew 
York,  it  has  not  become  a  serious  pest.  In  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington,  it  is  credited  with  severe  damage.  In  Xew  York 
it  inhabits  poorly  sprayed  or  unsprayed  trees,  being  infrequent 
in  orchards  that  are  thoroughly  treated  with  lime-sulphur  solution 
when  dormant.  The  principal  wrork  of  this  species  is  feeding 
early  in  spring  on  the  new  shoots.  In  California  *  and  other 
western  states,  the  larva  feeds  in  the  fruit  also,  causing  wormy 
peaches.  In  Xew  York,  however,  the  writer  has  never  noted  the 
species  in  the  fruit,  but  its  work  on  the  young  shoots  is  common. 

The  small  larva  of  the  twig-borer  lives  over  winter  in  the  thick 
tissues  of  the  crotches  of  the  limbs.  In  spring,  at  about  the  time 
the  buds  swell  and  burst,  the  larvae  come  forth  and  feed  in  the 
pithy  centers  of  the  young  shoots,  causing  them  to  wither  and  die. 
The  larvae  soon  become  full-grown,  pupate,  and  later  come  forth 
as  moths. 

Control.  In  Xew  York  conditions  do  not  warrant  special  pre- 
cautions against  this  insect.  As  stated  above  the  usual  spring 
application  of  lime-sulphur  wash  appears  to  control  infestations. 
The  work  of  the  larva  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees  is  limited  and 
has  never  been  noted  to  cause  oozing  of  the  sap. 

The  Lesser  Peach  Borer.  This  borer  (Synanthedon  pictipes 
G.  &  R.)  is  easily  confused  with  the  large  peach  borer  that  makes 
its  entrance  around  the  crown  of  the  trees.  The  lesser  peach  borer 
is  found  throughout  the  eastern  United  States  and  is  particularly 
abundant  in  western  Xew  York  and  the  lake  portions  of  Canada. 
It  generally  inhabits  the  trunks  and  large  gummy  wounds  on  the 
main  limbs  and  frequently  is  found  in  injuries  caused  by  the 
large  peach  borer. 

When  mature,  the  larva,  or  borer,  is  about  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length  and  is  not  as  large  in  diameter  as  is  the  peach 
borer.  It  feeds  on  the  inner  bark,  making  large  channels  and  tend- 
ing to  enlarge  the  wounds  by  eating  around  the  edges.  In  Xew 
York  the  larvae  become  full-grown  in  early  July.  They  crawl  out 


*  Reprint  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1905. 


(b)    Normal. 


ELBERTA. 


(d)    Normal. 
STEVENS  RARE-RIPE. 


PLATE  No.  3. 

Premature   and    Normal. 

Natural  Size. 


(c)    Prematures. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH  1099 

near  the  edge  of  the  wound,  there  spin  a  cocoon  consisting  of 
web  and  chewed  bark,  ;ind  pass  into  the  pupa  state.  In  about  ten 
days  the  larvae  have  changed  to  adult  moths  and  might  be  mistaken 
for  small  wasps,  both  males  and  females  of  the  species  appearing 
much  alike  (Fig.  350).  The  eggs  of  the  moth  are  deposited  on  the 
hjirk,  the  adults  preferring  to  place  them  near  wounds  from  which 
gum  has  formed.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  young  larvae 
resume  work  in  the  wound.  The  canker  caused  by  the  brown-rot 
fungus  is  a  frequent  haunt  for  this  borer. 

Control.  The  lesser  peach  borer  can  be  controlled  by  yearly 
examination  of  .cankers  and  wounds  and  by  the  killing  of  the 
larvae  in  the  early  part  of  June.  During  the  last  of  June  and 
early  in  July  the  larvae  are  passing  into  the  pupa  state  and  are  not 
generally  recognized  or  easily  found  by  the  grower. 

As  an  agency  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  young  larvae  after 
they  have  hatched,  it  has  been  noted  that  wherever  a  grower 
cleaned  out  the  wound  and  applied  a  strong  thickened  lime- 
sulphur  solution,  the  work  of  this  species  was  very  limited.  As 
used  in  western  New  York  the  solution  consists  of  the  following: 
concentrated  lime-sulphur,  2  gallons ;  water,  one-half  to  1  gallon ; 
lime  added  to  make  a  thick  wash.  Either  air-slaked  lime  or  thick 
milk  of  lime  is  used  to  thicken  the  concentrate.  The  thick  milk 
of  lime  seems  to  adhere  to  the  trees  much  better,  however,  and 
lasts  a  longer  time. 

Shot-hole,  or  Bark,  Beetles.     These  two  bark  beetles  (Phlceotri- 
bus  liminaris  Harr.   and     Scolytws  rugulosis  Katz.),  commonly 
known  ,as  shot-hole  borers,  are  equally  prevalent  in  western  New 
'ork.     The  first  species  is  apparently  more  destructive,  but  both 
luse  considerable  yearly  loss  of  peach  trees,  so  that  the  principal 
lethod  of  control  is  by  continually  preventing  favorable  breed- 
ig  places.     In  eastern  New  York  the  latter  species  is  the  most 
mimon.     In  this  state  both  insects  have  similar  breeding  periods. 
[n  September  the  beetles,  which  are  small  black  bugs  about  one- 
dxteenth  of  an  inch-  long,  attack  weakened  and  sometimes  healthy 
"ees.     They  bore  a  small  round  hole  in  the  bark,  in  many  cases 
in  eighth  of  an  inch  deep,  causing  large  quantities  of  gum  to 
form  on  the  surface  (Fig.  348.).     The  loss  of  sap  is  the  serious 
>art  of  the  injury.     Many  of  the  burrows  serve  as  hibernating 


1100 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK   STAN: 


quarters  for  the  winter,  and  in  spring  lateral  nicks  are  made  in 
which  eggs  are  deposited  that  soon  hatch,  the  young  larvae  matur- 
ing about  June  first.  The  adults  then  migrate  and  make  fresh 
entrances,  depositing  eggs  from  which  the  young  mature  about. 


FIG.  348. — WORK  OF  THE  SHOT-HOLE  BORER    (Phlceotribusliminaris) 

On  the  left  is  shown  the  gum  that  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the 

bark;   on  the  right,  the  holes  from  which  the  adults  emerge 

September  first,  thus  making  two  broods  of  the  pest  during  the 
summer  months.  Tn  Fig.  348  are  shown  the  gumming  and  the 
holes  from  which  adults  emerge. 

The  first-named  species,  Phlceotribus  liminaris  Harr.,  is  more 
serious  because  in  the  construction  of  its  channels  (Fig.  349)  the 


INSKCTS   AND    DISKASKS   OK  TIIK    PKACII 


1101 


main  burrow  runs  around  the  limb  while  the  laterals  run  length- 
wise of  the  branch.      Thus  the  sap  supply  is  cut  off,   and  the 

exudation  is  greater.     In  western  New  York  this  species  attacks 

healthy   trees   to  a  greater  extent  than  does  the  closely  allied 

species,  Scolytus  ruguLosis. 
The  latter  species  seems  to 

prefer  dead,  or  partially  dead, 

wood   and   does   not    as   often 

attack     healthy     trees.       The 

adults    of    this    species    make 

vertical  bores  in  the  bark,  and 

although  the  larvae  begin  by 

boring  along  the  sides  of  the 

vertical   channel,   they  gradu- 
ally curve  their  course  and  go 

more  or  less  lengthwise  of  the 

limb.      In  Fig.  '349,  the  course 

of  the  main  chamber  and  the 

vertical  tendency  of  the  lateral 

bores  should  be  noted. 

Measure  of  Control.     Since 

both  borers  cause  considerable 

loss  of  peach  trees   in  peach 

sections,  it  is  wise  for  growers 

to     ward     against    having    a 

breeding  ground  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  a  peach  orchard.     The 

writer   has  often    seen    peach 
tumps  piled  on  one  side  of 

the  orchard  and  left  until  fall, 
'he  borers  had  bred  in  the  bark  of  the  stumps  or  brush  if  the 

source  happened  to  be  from  brush,  and  about  September  first,  had 

migrated  from  the  dry  peach  wood  to  healthy  or  weak  trees  nearest 

to  the  pile. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  state,  examination  was  made  in  one 

instance  of  borers  that  had  migrated  from  a  pile  of  peach  brush 

lortheast  of  a   three-year-old   orchard   to  trees  on   the  northeast 
>rner  of  that  orchard.     The  infestation  was  heavy,  and  the  boring 


FIG.  349. —  CHANNELS  MADE  BY  THE 
SHOT-HOLE  BORER  (Phlceotribus 
liminaris ) 


1102  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

of  the  beetles  for  winter  quarters  caused  the  healthy  young  trees 
to  lose  a  large  amount  of  sap.  In  some  cases  the  ground  was 
covered  with  gum.  By  the  next  spring  two  hundred  and  fifty 
of  the  trees  were  dead,  for  freezing  winter  weather  had  sapped 
the  remaining  moisture  of  the  trees. 

It  is  always  easy  to  trace  the  source  of  an  infestation  by  noting 
the  direction  from  which  the  insects  came.  The  following  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken : 

1.  Burn  all  refuse  wood  or  brush  before  June  first  and  Sep- 
tember first.     Leave  no  such  refuse  near  peach  orchards  at  those 
periods. 

2.  All  frozen  or  otherwise  weak  trees  that  will  never  recuperate 
should  be  removed  and  destroyed  between  June  first  and  Septem- 
ber first. 

3.  Healthy  trees  seriously  injured  by  fall  or  spring  broods  may 
be  cut  back  and  stimulated  by  the  application  of  manure  to  the  soil, 

4.  If  trees  about  woodlots  or  buildings  are  subject  to  con- 
tinued attacks  from  various  sources,  an  application  to  the  bodies 
and  limbs  of  the  trees  of  the  solution  recommended  for  the  lesser 
peach  borer  on  page  1097  will  check  the  work  of  the  adults.    The 
wash  should  be  applied  just  before  June  first  and  September  first 

Peach-Tree  Borer.  This  insect  (Sanninoidea  exitiosa  Say.), 
the  most  serious  enemy  of  the  peach  in  New  York,  is  one  of  our 
native  insects.  Originally,  it  undoubtedly  inhabited  our  native 
plum  and  cherry  trees,  but  when  the  peach  was  introduced  into 
this  country  by  our  forefathers  the  insect  immediately  began  to 
infest  the  peach  tree,  and  today  is  generally  established  in  every 
peach  section  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

This  borer  differs  from  the  lesser  peach-tree  borer  in  that  its 
common  place  of  attack  is  at  the  crown  of  the  tree,  and  it  is  a 
very  heavy  feeder.  In  western  New  York  trees  that  are  located 
in  the  heavy  gravel  or  stony  loam  soils  are  frequently  badly  in- 
fested with  this  species.  The  pest  is  never  serious  in  trees  on 
clay  soils.  It  is  apparent  therefore  that  the  insect  needs  an  open 
soil  condition  as  a  natural  environment. 

The  full-grown  larva  of  this  species  is  a  white  or  light  yellow 
grub  about  an  inch  in  length  and  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter. 
The  head  and  first  regiment  are  brown.  The  larvae  cause  much 
irritation,  which  is  followed  by  an  exudation  of  sap  that  fills  the 


CARMAN. 


DEWEY. 


PLATE  No.  4. 

Normal  Colorations. 

Natural   Size. 


INSECTS  AISD  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH 


1103 


cavity  and  flows  out  in  large  masses  around  the  crown  of  the 
tm-s.  They  become  mature  during  tin1  summer  ami  crawl  out  of 
the  bark  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  or  the  exudation,  spin  a 
cocoon  of  web  and  borings,  and  there  pass  into  the  pupa  stage 


I 


FIG.  350. —  Tin;  LESSER  PEACH  BORER  AND  THE  PEACH-TREE  BORER 
(o  and  6)    Male  and  female  of  the  lesser  peach  borer    (Synanthedon  pictipes  G.  &  R.). 
(c  to  h)   Various  views  of  the  stages  of  the  peach-tree  borer:      (o)    larva;    (d)    pupa  in 
case   (e)   empty  cocoon;    (/)   pupa  skin;    (g)   adult  males;    (h)    adult  females 

(Fig.  350,  d),  soon  to  emerge  as  adult  moths.  According  to 
Slingerland  very  few  moths  emerge  before  July  first,  and  they 
mostly  appear  from  July  15  to  August  15.  In  1905,  Professor 
A.  L.  Quaintance*  reports  that  Mr.  Johnson  found  the  period  of 
*  Reprint,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  1905. 


1104  THK   FKTIT    INDUSTRY   ix    XK\V    YOKK   STATK 

emergence  of  the  adult  at   Vounju'stowii,   Xc\v   York,  to  be  from 
. I  line  12  to  August  24. 

There  being  a  lack  of  knowledge  among  growers  on  this  point, 
the  writer  has  secured  the  following  data  in  the  Olcott  section 
over  a  period  of  four  years : 

1912. —  Trees  located  on  gravel  and  stony  loam  soils.  Largest 
number  of  borers  remained  in  pupa  form  between  August  3  and 
August  7,  but  emerged  soon  after. 

1913. —  Larvae  were  passing  evenly  into  the  pupa  state  through 
the  last  half  of  July  and  the  first  half  of  August. 

1914. —  Pupae  were  found  in  largest  numbers  in  orchards 
seriously  infested  on  August  6. 

1915. —  Most  of  the  borers  had  left  or  were  leaving  the  pupa 
case  on  August  10.  On  heavier  soils  no  larvae  had  passed  into  the 
pupa  state. 

The  adults  of  this  species  would  not  be  recognized  as  moths  ex- 
cept by  an  expert,  being  wasplike  in  appearance.  The  female 
is  an  exceedingly  active  flyer,  the  greater  part  of  her  wings  and 
body  being  steel-blue  in  color.  She  is  adorned  with  a  broad,  bright 
orange-colored  band  across  the  abdomen  (Fig.  350,  h).  The  male  is 
a  smaller  insect  with  transparent  wings  bordered  with  steel-blue, 
his  body  is  slender  and  unadorned  but  of  the  same  blue  color.  The 
males  of  this  species  might  easily  be  confused  with  the  adults  of 
the  lesser  peach  borer. 

Quaintance  states  that  from  200  to  300  eggs  have  been  found 
in  the  bodies  of  the  females.  The  eggs  are  small  and  yellowish 
brown.  They  are  deposited  on  the  bark,  especially  around  an  exud- 
ing wound.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  young  larvae  enter  the 
bark  very  largely  through  the  exuding  gum  from  a  wound.  They 
will  enter,  however,  directly  through  the  bark  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

Control.  Many  methods  have  been  tried  out 'in  order  to  kill 
the  borer  or  to  prevent  it  from  entering  the  trees.  Most  of  these 
methods  have  proved  costly  and  ineffective.  No  material  nor  de- 
vice has  been  found  to  destroy  the  pest,  but  a  few  preventive  meas- 
ures are  generally  adopted  in  the  peach  sections  of  New  York. 

1.  Between  June  15  and  July  15,  the  soil  is  removed  from  the 
crown  of  the  trees  and  the  bark  examined  with  a  knife  to  find  and 


«  .a 


s 


INSKCTS   AND    DISKASKS   OF  TIIK    PKACII 


1105 


destroy  all  larvae.     This  practice  slmnld  not  l»e  followed  later  than 
July  15. 

2.  As  soon  as  the  back  or  wound  is  dry,  an  application  of  the 
thickened  line-sulphur  solution  recommended  for  the  lesser  peach 
borer  on  page  1099  is  made.    The  crown  and  about  eighteen  inches 
of  the  trunk  should  be  thoroughly  whitewashed  with  the  solution. 

3.  As  soon  as  the  trees  are  dry,  the  soil  is  piled  back  against  the 
trees  forming  a  mound  about  six  or  eight  inches  high  (Fig.  351). 
The  mounding  forces  the  female  to  deposit  her  eggs  higher  on 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  thus 

causing  more  unfavorable 
conditions  for  the  larvae 
and  placing  them  in  an 
easier  position  to  remove. 
It  also  serves  to  prevent 
frost  injury  (page  1113). 
Many  growers  make  the 
serious  mistake  of  leaving 
the  soil  hoed  away  from 
the  crowns  of  the  trees. 
The  mounds  should  be 
made  prior  to  August  1, 
before  the  adult  deposits 
her  eggs. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pupa  stage  of  this  insect  during  the 
years  1912,  1913,  1914,  and  1915,  varied  somewhat,  and  that  only 
during  the  year  1913  did  the  pupa  stage  last  over  an  extended 
period  of  time.  During  the  other  three  years  the  greatest  number 
of  the  larvae  were  in  the  pupa  stage  from  August  3  to  August  10. 
It  is  believed  therefore  that  many  times  the  grower  would  have  an 
opportunity  to  kill  large  numbers  of  the  pupae  between  August  1 
and  August  10.  The  writer  has  often  removed  the  soil  from  the 
crown  of  trees  during  this  period  of  the  four  years  and  found 
from  one  to  seventeen  living  pupae.  If  trees  on  gravel  or  stony 
loam  soil  have  a  serious  infestation  of  the  pest,  it  is  rapid  work 
with  a  trowel  or  similar  instrument  to  remove  the  soil,  carefully 
examining  the  same  for  the  pupae.  They  are  easily  found  es- 
pecially if  the  soil  is  dry  and  loose.  No  cutting  of  the  bark  is 
necessary. 


Fro.  351. —  MOUNDING  OF  PEACH  TREES 
TO  (  iii:<  K  BORERS  ~XT?D  PRKVK.NT 
FREEZING 


1106 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


DISEASES 

In  Xew  York  State  the  peach  is  subject  to  nine  maladies,  seven 
of  which  are  distinct  diseases.  The  natural  order  of  these  so-called 
diseases  are  crown  gall,  powdery  mildew,  peach  spot,  or  scab,  shot 
hole  of  peach  foliage,  brown  rot,  peach  leaf  curl,  yellows,  little 
peach  and  frost  injury. 


FIG.  352. —  CROWN  GALL,  ILLUSTRATING  ITS 
APPEARANCE  ON  DIFFERENT  TREES  AND 
PLANTS 

Crown  Gall 

Peaches  are  subject  to  various  gall-like  formations.  They  are 
known  as  root  knot,  aphis  galls,  and  the  true  crown  gall.  The 
first  is  caused  by  an  eel  worm  or  nematode,*  the  second  by  the 
black  peach  aphid,  and  the  third  by  a  parasitic  organism.  Crown 


*  Farm  Bui.  33,  1805,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 


INSECTS  AND  DISPOSES  OF  THE  PEACJI  1107 

galls  grow  to  be  as  large  as  two  inches  in  diameter.  Nursery  stock 
is  occasionally  found  badly  infested,  although  the  disease  does  not 
seem  to  lie  seriously  contagious  in  this  state.  The  galls  are  soft 
and  spongy  and  are  generally  situated  at  the  crown  or  on  the  large 
roots.  Trees  affected  with  galls  should  not  be  planted  unless  the 
galls  can  be  cut  off  without  too  much  loss  of  roots. 

Powdery  Mildew 

This  fungous  disease  (Sphcerotlieca  pannosa  [Wallr.]  Lev.) 
lives  for  the  most  part  on  the  surface  *of  the  plant,  sending  its 
r-ootlike  hostoria  into  the  cells  of  the  host  to  take  up  its  nourish- 
ment. The  light  gray  growth  is  the  fungus  itself.  It  often  at- 
tacks young  trees  in  the  orchard  during  the  first,  second,  and  third 
years  growth,  especially  when  the  trees  are  on  rather  low  wet 
i:  round.  Old  trees  that  have  been  severely  dehorned  and  forced 
into  rapid  growth. are  subject  to  mildew  particularly  when  growth 
is  thick  and  compact.  The  fungus  takes  the  sap  out  of  the  leaves, 
thereby  checking  the  growth  and  causing  the  foliage  to  turn  a 
grayish  brown.  The  edges  of  the  leaves  may  roll,  gradually  dry, 
and  crack.  Powdery  mildew  is  common  in  western  New  York 
orchards. 

Control.  Growers  do  not  practice  using  spray  to  control  this 
disease  of  the  peach.  The  trees  affected  are  usually  young  and 
nonbearing,  and  have  grown  sufficiently  for  the  season  by  the  time 
the  fungus  appears.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  spray  for  the 
powdery  mildew  on  the  peach. 

Peach  Spot,  or  Scab 

Peach  spot,  or  scab,  (Cladosporium  carpophilum  Thum.),  is  a 
very  common  disease  in  this  state.  In  years  when  rainfall  is  heavy 
during  the  summer  season,  it  is  favorable  for  the  disease.  Usually 
the  infection  occurs  during  the  latter  half  of  July  or  the  first  half 
of  August,  taking  place  on  the  side  of  the  peach  that  lies  upper- 
most. Many  varieties,  such  as  Carman,  Champion,  Yellow  St. 
John,  Elberta,  Salway,  and  Hills  Chili  are  susceptible,  but  Yellow 
St.  John,  Salway,  and  Hills  Chili  are  invariably  so. 

Control.  The  disease  is  not  common  since  the  use  of  bordeaux 
mixture  has  been  discontinued  to  make  a  spraying  for  peach  scab. 
5  ' 


1108 


THE   FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XKW  YORK  STATE 


With  very  susceptible  varieties,  such  as  the  St.  John,  especially 
when  it  is  grown  for  a  fancy  market,  it  would  he  advisable  to  make 
a  spraying  to  check  the  disease.  For  this  purpose  no  better  spray 
could  be  used  than  Scott's  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixture*  which 
is  made  as  follows  :  Fresh  stone  lime,  8  pounds  ;  sulphur  (flowers 
or  flour),  8  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Usually  mo-re  than  50  gallons  are  needed,  and  in  such  a  case 
the  above  formula  can  be  made  32-32-200.  The  lump  lime 
can  be  placed  in  a  barrel  and  enough  water  added  almost  to  cover 
the  lime.  As  the  lime  begins  to  slake,  the  sulphur  from  which  all 
lumps  have  been  sifted  should  be  added.  More  water  also  is 
added  to  keep  the  mixture  from  burning  dry.  When  natural  boil- 
ing by  the  lime  ceases,  the  remaining  amount  of  water  should  be 
added  and  the  application  made.  If  properly  prepared,  the  mixture 
should  not  burn  the  foliage. 


Hole  of  Pea-cli  Foliage 
This  disease  is  rather  prevalent  in  some  years.     In  1897,  Dr. 
B.  M.  Duggarf  noted  an  instance  of  shot-hole  effect  on  peach  foliage 
due  to  weather  conditions.     In  his  notes  of  that  date  Dr.  Duggar 

states:  "An  examination  of 
specimens  of  various  fungi  af- 
fecting the  peach  and  plum  will 
show  that,  with  the  exception  of 
leaf  curl,  mildew,  and  a  few 
others,  these  fungi  are  very  gen- 
erally productive  of  a  shot-hole 
effect.-'  He  also  adds:  "This 
shot-hole  effect  is  a  peculiar 
physiological  reaction  of  plant 
injuries  of  many  kinds." 

In  1  900,  Professor  F.  C.  Stewart's  attention  was  called  to  th< 
shot-hole  effect  in  peach  orchards  about  Marlboro  in  the  Hudsoi 
River  section.  Professor  Stewart  stated  :  "  Certainly,  the  trouble 
was  not  of  fungous  origin.  We  believe  it  was  brought  about  by 
weather  conditions." 


KFC.      353. —  SHOT-HOLE     EFFECT 
ox   PEACH  FOLIAGE 


::  Bui.  174,  1910,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

•j-  Bui.  164,  1899,  Cornell  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


PLATE  No.  6. 

ELBERTA. 

Second  Year  Little  Peach  Disease. 
%  Natural   Size. 


I.XSKCTS     AM)     DlSKASKS     OK    Till-: 


A  large  amount  of  defoliation  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  Olcott, 
Now  York,  during  July  of  the  season  of  P.M.").  and  in  some  sec- 
tions of  eastern  .New  York  in  August.  At  Olcott  nearly  a  quarter 
of  the  foliage  was  lost  in  several  orchards.  Ko  spray  had  been 
applied  to  the  foliage,  but  unusual  weather  conditions  prevailed 
throughout  the  summer,  causing  heavy  brown-rot  infection  of 
fruit.  From  the  symmetry  of  the  spots  and  their  location  along 
-the  margins  of  the  tip  third  of  the  leaves  and  along  the  midribs,  it 
seemed  quite  possible  that  the  trouble  was  of  fungous  origin.  No 
preventive  measures  are  known  for  the  difficulty,  but  it  is  sel- 
dom that  the  injury  is  so  prevalent  as  it  was  during  the  season 

of  n>i;>.* 


This  disease  (Sclerotinia  frwt-igena)  is  the  most  serious  fungous 
disease  of  the  peach.  The  fungus  lives  over  winter  in  the  rotted 
peaches  on  the  ground,  produc- 
ing little  fruiting  bodies  very 
curly  in  spring  (Fig.  355), 
while  in  peaches  that  still  cling- 
to  the  tree,  spores  are  developed 
(Fig.  354).  The  dissemination 
of  the  spores  may  cause  infec- 
tion of  the  husk  enveloping  the 
newly  formed  peach  and  the 
poach  also.  Instances  have  been 
noted  in  Niagara  County,  when 
almost  the  entire  set  of  peaches 
has  been  destroyed  by  rot  at  this 
time.  In  many  cases  the  fun- 
gus continues  down  the  stem  of 
the  peach 'into  the  branch,  later 
causing  large  black  cankers  so 

prevalent    on    Elberta    in    that  .  Mi-BBow^  ROT  OF  T,,K 

county.     Again,  the  infection  of 

fruit  occurs  during  August,  especially  in  the  early  varieties,  such 
as  'Champion,  Carman,  Triumph,  or  Dewey,  and  almost  complete 
loss  results.  For  the  most  part  susceptible  varieties  are  not  very 


*  Bui.  328,  1010,  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


1110 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


profitable.     It  is  generally  felt  that  they  should  not  be  planted  for 

commercial  use. 

Control.      Wherever    varieties    are    profitable    but    subject    to 

rot,  applications  of  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  wash  are  recom- 
mended, as  in  the  case  of  peach 
spot,  or  scab,  page  110$.  Re- 
peated applications  of  the  spray 
are  advisable  during  the  months 
of  June  and  July. 

Peach  Leaf  Curl 
The  fungus  (Exoascus  defor- 
mam  Fuckl.)  that  causes  this 
disease  produces  highly  dis- 
torted foliage.  The  infection 
occurs  011  the  leaf  at  the  time  the 
leaves-  break  through  the  bud 
scales,  and  by  the  time  the  leaf 
is  partly  grown  little  red  boil- 
like  areas  have  developed. 
Later  the  areas  increase  until 
most  of  the  leaf  may  be  in- 
cluded. It  then  gradually  grows 

misshapen,  turns  grayish  white,  dries,  and  drops.  Heavy  defolia- 
tion often  causes  serious  dropping  of  the  fruit  and  a  lack  of  bud 
formation. 

Control.  Leaf  curl  can  be  entirely  controlled  by  a  proper  ap- 
plication of  lime-sulphur  or  bordeaux  mixture.  Lime-sulphur 
solution  is  used  for  San  Jose  scale;  when  it  is  at  scale  strength, 
a  thorough  application  made  before  the  buds  burst  will  completely 
control  the  trouble.  If  no  scale  is  prevalent  in  the  section,  bor- 
deaux mixture,  4-4—50,  is  usually  cheaper  and  is  equally  effective. 
Spraying  can  be  done  at  any  temperature  above  32  degrees  after 
the  foliage  has  dropped  in  fall  and  until  the  buds  burst  in  spring. 
In  making  spring  applications,  the  grower  should  watch  the  de- 
velopment of  the  terminal  buds,  and  not  allow  them  to  burst  be- 
fore the  spray  has  been  applied. 


FIG.  355. —  SCLEROTIA   STAGE   OF 
BROWN  EOT  ON  THE  GROUND 


PLATE  No.  7. 

EARLY  CRAWFORD. 

First  Year  Little  Peach  Disease. 

!/2   Natural   Size. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH  1111 

yellows 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  unknown.  From  the  characters  of 
the  disease  it  appears  to  be  one  of  bacterial  origin.  It  is  con- 
tagious to  such  an  extent  that  whole  orchards,  or,  as  past  records 
show,  the  orchards  of  a  whole  section  will  become  diseased  and 
gradually  die  out.  This  was  the  case  in  western  New  York  about 
thirty  years  ago,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is  true  in  the  case  of 
certain  districts  of  other  states. 

The  early  character*  of  the  disease  is  a  premature  peach,  desig- 
nated by  bright-red  dappled  spots  on  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Such 
specimens  often  develop  in  larger  size  than  does  the  unaffected 
fruit  of  the  same  tree,  and  they  ripen  earlier,  showing  the  charac- 
teristic blotches  from  two  weeks  before  up  to  the 'day  on  which  they 
are  ready  to  pick.  The  blotches  appear  to  be  concentrations  of 
juice  just  under  the  skin  and  form  very  slight  pimples.  The 
quality  is  usually  poor  being  a  stringent  insipid  acid.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  the  characteristic  blotches  and  comparative  size  at 
the  time  the  premature  fruits  appear  (Plate  3).  A  single 
fruit  on  a  branch  or  the  fruits  of  an  entire  limb  may  show  the 
disease  at  the  same  time.  In  case  the  whole  branch  shows  the 
disease,  the  foliage  becomes  yellow  as  the  season  advances  (Plate 
1).  During  the  second  season  the  disease  usually  appears  on 
other  limbs  of  the  tree  or  over  the  entire  tree.  In  the  third  year 
less  fruit  sets,  but  both  fruit  and  foliage  have  the  colorations. 
Terminal  growth  is  checked  and  often  wirelike  shoots  with  nar- 
row leaves  appear  on  the  large  limbs  and  frequently  on  the  small 
branches  (Plate  2).  In  the  fourth  year  foliage  is  very  scarce, 
and  death  follows.  Compare  the  normal  streaking  of  the  fruit 
with  the  characteristic  dapple  (plates  3  and  4). 

Control.  Trees  in  which  the  disease  appears  are  doomed,  as  no 
treatment  has  ever  been  found  to  improve  their  condition.  The 
only  means  by  which  the  disease  can  be  controlled  is  by  systematic 
examination  and  eradication  of  diseased  trees  in  the  orchards  of  a 
community.  The  results  obtained  in  the  Niagara  district  between 
1902  and  1913*  illustrate  the  value  of  destruction  of  diseased 
trees.  The  growers  who  practice  removing  the  tree  when  the 
disease  first  appears  are  the  most  successful  in  controlling  the 
disorder. 


*  Bull.  61,  1014,  X.  Y.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Peach  Yellow  and  Little  Peach. 


1112  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YOKK  STATE 

Little  Peach 

As  in  the  case  of  yellows  the  cause  of  this  disease  is  unknown. 
Probably  little  peach  'has  been  more  or  less  prevalent  in  the  or- 
chards of  Xew  York  as  long  as  yellows  has,  but  it  is  certain  that 
little  peach  has  not  been  recognized  as  a  disease  nearly  as  long  as 
yellows.  It  is  equally  as  contagious  but  much  harder  to  dis- 
tinguish in  its  early  stages.  For  this  reason  the  disease  is  more 
likely  to  become  well  established  in  an  orchard  before  being 
recognized. 

The  most  definite  early  indication  of  the  disorder  is  a  foliage 
character  rather  than  a  fruit  character  as  in  the  case  of  yellows. 
One  who  is  studying  the  disease  must  first  recognize  that  all  varie- 
ties of  peaches  can  be  grouped  into  two  distinct  types  of  foliage, 
namely,  the  Elberta  type  and  the  Crawford  type.  The  former 
have  large  wide  slightly  curved  leaves  with  a  drooping  tendency. 
The  latter  have  short,  medium-wide,  crescent-shaped  leaves 
(Plate  5).  The  varieties  of  peaches  mentioned  below  are 
placed  under  their  respective  foliage  types: 

Elberta  Crawford 

Carman  Barnard 

Champion  Black  Crawford 

Dewey  Chairs  Choice 

Elberta  Early  Crawford 

Greensboro  Fitzgerald 

Hills  Chili  Foster 

Iron  Mountain  Globe 

Niagara  Graves  Early 

Red  Cheek  Melocotone  Lady  Ingold 

Salway  Late  Crawford 

Smock  Plain  Surprise 

Stevens  Rare-Ripe  Reeves  Favorite 

Triumph  Wheatland 

Yellow  Bergen  Yellow  St.  John. 

In  the  Elberta  types  the  presence  of  this  disease  is  manifested 
by  the  leaves  below  the  tip  being  tinged  with  yellow  and  withered 
in  appearance,  while  the  terminal  foliage  remains  healthy.  The 
tip  foliage  remains  green  throughout  the  season.  No  striking 
difference  is  noted  in  the  size  of  the  fruit,  but  it  will  ripen  a  few 
days  late. 

In  the  second  year  the  foliage  characters  are  the  same  but  are 
more  pronounced.  The  effect  on  the  fruit  is  easily  recognized  since 


m 

/ 


Third 
Year. 


Fourth 
Year. 


First  Year. 


EARLY  CRAWFORD. 


Second  Year. 


Third 
Year. 


Fourth 
Year. 


PLATE  No.  8. 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OK  THE   PEACH  lllo 

it  is  decreased  to  the  size  of  a  prime  and  ripens  about  two  weeks 
late.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  the  disease  causes  a  decrease 
in  foliage  with  more  and  more  indefinite  characters.  The  fruits 
of  the  third  year  are  about  the  size  of  walnuts  and  seldom  ripen. 
In  the  fourth  year  they  are  very  small  and  never  ripen.  Death 
of  the  limb  or  the  tree  usually  follows  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 
disease. 

In  the  Crawford  type  during  the  first  year  the  disease  pro- 
duces somewhat  different  characters.  The  terminal  foliage  is 
normal  in  color  and  shape,  but  the  leaves  below  the  tip  are  tinted 
with  the  same  characteristic  yellow  common  in  both  diseases. 
The  tinted  leaves  seem  to  possess  a  drooping  tendency,  due  to 
the  tip  third  of  each  leaf  turning  back.  This  curving  of  the  tip 
(iiives  a  clumping  effect  with  the  seeming  droop.  Only  slight 
decrease  is  noted  in  the  size  of  the  fruit. 

In  the  second  year  foliage  characters  in  the  Crawford  type  do 
not  differ  greatly  from  those  of  the  first  year.  The  fruit  develops 
to  about  the  size  of  a  prune  and  ripens  about  two  weeks  late.  Tn 
the  third  year  the  foliage4  is  usually  strikingly  clinching  in  nature. 
The  fruit  is  small  and  never  ripens. 

In  the  fourth  year  the  tree  brings  forth  very  little  foliage  and 
the  fruits  are  small.  At  the  end  of  the  season  the  result  is  invar- 
iably death. 

Frost  injury  to  the  roots  and  crown  may  cause  trees  to  throw7 
out  weak  foliage  which  may  easily.be  confused  with  the  little-peach 
disease.  If  the  grower  will  keep  in  mind  the  principal  foliage 
characters,  however,  no  mistake  should  be  made.  The  entire 
foliage  of  a  frozen  tree  is  affected,  which  is  not  true  usually  in 
the  case  of  little  peach,  as  the  terminal  leaves  are  a  healthy  green 
in  the  first  two  years  of  the  attack.  In  plates  6  and  7 
the  effects  of  the  disease  on  the  two  types  of  foliage  may  be  seen, 
and  in  Plate  8  the  yearly  effect  on  the  fruit  is  indicated. 

Control.  The  method  of  control  is  identical  with  that  of  yel- 
lows. 

Frost  Injury 

Frost  injury  is  described  here  because  it  is  often  confused  with 
diseases  of  the  peach.  Two  types  of  Injury  are  considered,  first, 
that  which  affects  the  crown  and  roots  and,  secondly,  that  which 
appears  at  the  crotching  of  the  trunk. 


1114 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


(a).  Frost  injury  around  the  crown  may  take  place  among 
trees  of  all  ages  and  in  all  locations,  whether  they  are  on  a  steejv 
slope  or  on  level  land.  The  injury  usually  occurs  in  the  dead  of 
winter  when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground.  The  snow,  a  foot  or 
more  deep  on  the  level,  blows  away  from  the  crown  of  the  trees, 
after  which  the  sun  thaws  the  snow  011  the  north  side  of  the  basin 
and  the  water  forms  a  pool  that  later  in  the  day  freezes.  The  day 
following  more  snow  thaws,  and  another  layer  of  ice  is  formed. 
This  process  is  repeated  until  the  basin  of  ice  will  not  crack  as 
it  would  under  more  normal  conditions.  The  distinguishing  fea- 
ture of  the  injury  resulting  to  the  tree  is  a  restricted  area  of 
bark  about  the  crown.  It  may  extend  all  around  the  tree  or  only 
on  one  side.  The  bark  dries  and  later  offers  a  convenient  breeding 
place  for  one  of  the  dead-bark  fungi  or  the  borers. 

Control.  A  tree  girdled 
in  this  manner  cannot  be 
saved,  although  it  may 
live  for  several  years  if 
only  partly  girdled.  The 
injuries  themselves  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  heal  over, 
however.  In  western 
New  York  an  important 
measure  is  taken  so  as  to 
prevent  such  injury  to 
peach  trees  as  well  as  to 
other  trees  (Fig.  851).  It 
has  become  general  prac- 
tice there  to  make  a 
mound  just  before  the 
ground  freezes  in  fall,  if 
it  has  not  been  made  pre- 
viously, to  guard  against 
the  borer.  In  some  soils, 
mounds  made  earlier 
wash  down,  thus  making  it  necessary  to  remound  in  the  fall. 

(b).  The  second  type  of  injury  occurs  in  the  crotches  of  the 
trees,  where  large  irregular  cankerlike  areas  appear  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  limbs  and  trunk.  This  injury  is  common  in  various 


FIG.  356. —  FROZEN  CROTCH 


INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OK  THE  PEACH 


1115 


localities,  and  in  some  cases  has  affected  a  majority  of  the  trees  in 
the  orchard. 

Why  a  tree  should  be  subject  to  such  injury  at  this  point  is  not 
clear.  It  will  be  remembered,  however,  that  a  section  of  bark 
of  the  crotch  of  a  tree  is  thicker  than  any  other  area  on  the  tree. 
It  will  also  be  remembered  that  the  cells  of  this  particular  area 
are  highly  active  and  specialized.  It  is  suspected  that  trees  af- 
fected by  freezing  at  the  crotch  have  been  extremely  vigorous  in 
the  previous  summer,  and  their  wood  and  bark  have  not  ripened 
properly.  The  frost  thus  gains  access  to  the  tree  and  injures  the 
cells. 

A  similar  canker  is 
likely  to  occur  from 
another  source.  Growers 
are  sometimes  in  the  habit 
of  leaving  a  small  dead 
stub,  a  part  of  the  original 
trunk  of  the  nursery  tree 
as  set,  in  the  crotch  of  the 
tree.  This  stub  seems  to 
be  an  ideal  spot  for  one  of 
the  deadwood  fungi,  a 
Yalsa,  to  attack.  The  stub 
becomes  affected  with  the 
fungus  and  Inter  forms  a 
distant  canker  causing 
very  weak  crotches.  This 
fungous  canker  can  be 
distinguished  from  frost 
injury  of  the  crotch  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  former 
case  minute  round-headed 
fruiting  bodies  of  the  fun- 
is  form  in  the  bark.  In  young  trees  all  such  stubs  (Fig.  357,  at 
a)  should  be  carefully  removed  as  soon  as  the  lateral  buds  of  the 
lowly  set  tree  have  started.  Such  forms  of  cankers  are  the  most 
frequent  cause  for  the  breaking  down  of  trees  in  later  years. 


FIG.  357. —  FrxorsEn  STUB  CANKER 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  THE  PEACH 

A.    G.     Gl'LLEY 
Professor    of    Horticulture,    Connecticut    Agricultural    College,    Storrs,    Conn. 

^tfSWfe^  Our  methods  of  marketing  are  only  ap- 

plicable to  conditions  similar  to  our  own, 
which  can  he  found  in  many  places  in 
southern  Xew  England  and  probably  in 
other  sections  in  the  east,  where  producer 
and  consumer  are  near  each  other.  In 
this  section  two  manufacturing  centers 
are  within  easy  carrying  distance,  one  of 
which  is  much  larger  and  somewhat 
farther  away,  while  several  small  plants 
having  many  consumers  are  very  convenient.  These  are  all 
largely  dependent  on  outside  producers,  and  in  a  section  capable 
of  growing  the  fruit. 

PROPER     GROWTH     MOST     IMPORTANT 

Tn  preparing  to  supply  this  demand  a  somewhat  different  make 
up  of  orchard  planting  was  necessary,  from  that  of  the  larger 
shippers.  The  several  extensive  peach  growers  of  the  state  expect 
to  harvest  the  bulk  of  their  crop  within  two  weeks.  We  have 
found  it  profitable  to  extend  the  season  greatly,  and  try  to  have 
a  regular  succession  for  at  least  eight  weeks,  but  of  course  a  much 
heavier  production  near  the  midseason  of  the  crop.  We  soon  dis- 
covered also  that  a  large  share  of  the  labor  of  grading  and  pack- 
ing could,  and  should  be  done  before  the  fruit  was  picked.  This 
work  is  much  reduced  if  the  fruit  is  all  of  even  and  fair  size,  good 
color,  and  free  from  blemishes,  and  in  recent  years  we  have  given 
much  more  attention  to  having  a  good  grade  of  fruit  to  harvest. 
Special  stress  has  been  laid  on  thinning,  not  only  getting  rid  of 
small  fruit,  but  having  that  grown  of  even  as  well  as  of  good  size. 
In  packing  we  have  not  graded  beyond  two  sizes,  and  in  some 
varieties  only  one  that  was  sent  to  market.  We  have  laid  great 
stress  011  having  the  fruit  of  even  color,  and  as  the  market  was 
near  have  allowed  the  fruit  to  ripen  well.  We  find  the  matter  of 
color  fully  as  important  as  size. 

[1116] 


PACKING  A.\I>  M  AUKI.TI.\<;  THE  I'KACII  1117 

XKU.I.XI,     'I'D     UKTAI  LKK'S 

The  regular  Jersey  basket  is  so  well  known  that-  we  have  not 
found  it  a<lvisahle  to  use  any  other  package.  As  we  deliver  our 
fruit  to  the  retailer,  no  cover  is  used  and  the  baskets  are  well 
tilled.  This  basket  i<  a  very  convenient  one  to  pack,  as  fruit  of 
all  sixes  can  readily  be  fitted  to  it  and  made  solid,  and  the  bas- 
kets all  packed  equally  full  without  spacing  or  breaking  joints. 

The  great  bulk  of  our  crop  has  been  delivered  direct  to  the 
retailers,  since  we  preferred  to  leave  the  distribution  to  them.  \Ye 
have  made  no  special  effort  to  sell  to  consumers  direct,  although 
some  of  this  trade  came  of  itself,  and  has  increased,  particularly 
at  the  orchard  from  auto  calls.  Parties  in  automobiles  often  came 
much  farther  than  we  ever  carried  fruit. 

One  method  somewhat  different  has  proved  very  satisfactory. 
One  of  the  towns  mentioned  was  supplied  with  vegetables  by  an 
extensive. market  gardener  nearby.  During  the  peach  season  he 
was  not  very  busy,  so  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  sale  of 
peaches.  The  price  was  set  by  the  grower,  being  governed  by  that 
of  other  places,  and  the  salesman  received  a  set  price  per  basket 
for  sales.  This  fruit  was  taken  at  the  packing  house  by  the  sales- 
man in.  his  own  wagons.  His  customers  being  already  established 
through  the  vegetables,  he  could  and  did  handle  a  large  amount 
of  fruit  continuously  during  nearly  the  whole  season.  There  are 
many  places  where  this  plan  or  some  variation  of  it  could  be 
carried  out. 

Many  growers  in  this  state,  small  as  well  as  extensive  ones,  sell 
through  commission  houses,  but  others  work  through  the  retail 
men.  One  orchard  firm  furnishes  a  large  retailer  who  agrees  to 
handle  the  whole  crop.  The  stock  being  largely  of  a  fancy  grade, 
the  house  -has  no  trouble  in  disposing  of  it  at  good  prices.  The 
average  price  received  by  growers  who  deal  through  the  retailer 
is  certainly  better  than  by  the  commission  method.  We  have  not 
tried  shipping  through  parcel  post  as  other  plans  seem  to  fill  our 
requirements. 

Considering  peach  marketing  from  all  points,  for  southern 
Xew  England  at  least,  selling  through  the  retailer  seems  to  offer 
the  best  opportunity  to  the  grower  whose  orchard  does  not  exceed 
five  thousand  trees. 


1118 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  JN   XEW  YO-RK   STATF-: 


TABLE  SHOWING  XUMBEB  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS  OF  PEACHES 
IN  XEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  CouiyriEs 


County 


(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 


Trees 


Bushels 


Albany    

8,737 

933 

Allegany    

341 

146 

Broome    

1,420 

472 

Cattaraugus     

2,020 

510 

Cavuga    

29,560 

13,149 

Chautauqua    

32,377 

15,486 

Chemung   

3,729 

1,781 

Chenango    

24 

9 

Clinton    

82 

21 

Columbia  

51,818 

8,411 

Cortland    

402 

229 

Delaware   

89 

32 

Dutchess    

63,741 

30,132 

Erie    

10,987 

3,858 

Essex     

472 

19 

Franklin    

49 

29 

Fulton    

'  48 

40 

Genesee    

14,530 

5,706 

Greene    

22,624 

2,854 

Hamilton    

Herkimer    

17 

13 

Jefferson    

331 

105 

Kings     

4 

4 

Lewis   

14 

2 

Livingston    

19,251 

12,767 

Madison     

216 

66 

Monroe    

.  339,375 

257,576 

Montgomery    

309 

226 

Nassau     

.  4,015 

2,201 

New  York  

Niagara  

591,350 

561,439 

Oneida   

103 

16 

Onondaga    

6,409 

2,933 

Ontario    

56,495 

37,505 

Orange   

212,879 

124,262 

Orleans    .  .  

157,934 

140,898 

Oswego    

16,271 

9,421 

Otsego    

60 

19 

Putnam     

4,698 

2,095 

Queens   

613 

804 

Rensselaer     

13,353 

1,387 

Richmond    

1,910 

488 

Rockland  

21,081 

7,034 

St.  Lawrence    

9 

11 

Saratoga     

1,338 

14 

Schenectady    

.>...,  729 

51 

Schoharie    

1,574 

51 

Schuyler    

,  51,993 

24,706 

Seneca    

81,440 

61,279 

Steuben    .  .  

8,200 

3,154 

Suffolk     

30,333 

16,096 

Sullivan    

3,382 

1,809 

Tioga   

4,965 

2,001 

Tompkins    

34,090 

17,833 

Ulster    

313,971 

196,190 

p 

County 

Warren  

ACKINJ;  AND  MARKETING  THK   I'KACH 

Trees 
181 

1119 

Bushels 

Washington   
Waviu1    

IS;, 
166   S,~>4 

1 
130  554 

Wr-t  chest  or     .    .  . 

....                                16  172 

12  614 

Wvominw   

;;  (is:; 

1    v>39 

•'.'J    SO') 

' 

The   State    . 

2.457.187 

1.73ft.  483 

THE  CHERRY 


I  loir  sweet  is  the  land  where  the  cherry  trees  lloom 
Tin-   hrcr-.ru   icaft  hither  the  frayrant  perfume." 


JAPANESE    POEM 


[11211 


MONTMORENCY 


VARIETIES  OF  CHERRIES 

U.  P.  HKDKMCK 
Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

In  New  York,  at  least  ninety  per  rent  of  I  he  cherry  trees  arc 
sour  varieties.  The  leading  commercial  types  in  order  named 
are  Montmoreiicy,  Karly  Richmond,  and  Knglish  ^lorello.  Xonc 
of  the  Duke  Cherries  are  of  commercial  importance,  hut  May 
Duke,  Late  Duke,  and  Reine  Hortense  are  grown  in  home  planta- 
tions. The  most  popular  sweet  cherries  in  New  York  are  Wind- 
sor, Black  Tartarian,  Napoleon,  and  Wood.  Schmidt  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  popular.  Two  new  varieties,  Bing  and  Lam- 
bert, are  being  tried  by  maiiT  growers. 

The  sour  varieties  named  meet  most  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  and  can  be  used  fairly  well,  but  there  should  be  a  larger 
number  of  sweet  varieties  grown  to  meet  the  varied  requirements 
and  diverse  soil  and  climate  conditions  of  New  York.  In  dis- 
cussing varieties  of  cherries,  then,  we  need  be  concerned  with  but 
a  few  of  the  sour  types  and  of  the  Dukes,  but  must  consider  a 
rather  large  number  of  sweet  kinds. 

SOUR    CHERRIES 

Early  Richmond 

Early  Richmond  is  the  leading  early  sour  cherry.  It  is  a 
splendid  culinary  variety  and  when  well  ripened  may  be  eaten 
out  of  the  hand  with  relish.  Although  not  in  as  great  demand 
for  canning  as  Montmorericy,  it  still  makes  a  very  good  canning 
product,  being  used  more  than  it  otherwise  would  be  to  prolong 
the  season  because  of  its  earliness.  Early  Richmond  thrives  in 
a  great  variety  of  soils  and  withstands  the  cold  in  all  parts  of  the 
state  except  in  the  highest  altitudes  of  the  Adirondacks.  It  is 
indispensable  in  every  home  and  commercial  orchard  for  an  early 
cherry. 

.17  ontrnorency 

Probably  half  the  cherry  trees  in  New  York  are  Montmorency. 
and  at  least  three-fourths  of  all  the  trees  of  the  sour  cherry  are 

[11231 


1124  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ^TEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  358. —  EAELY  RICHMOND 
(Three -fourths  natural  size) 


YAKIKTIKS  OF  CHERRIES  *     1125 

of  this  variety.  It  leads  in  the  demands  for  these  fruits  in  ihe 
markets  both  for  the  canner  and  for  home  use  as  a  culinary 
cherry.  It  holds  first  place  by  reason  of  several  characters,  being 
of  all  the  most  vigorous,  healthy,  and  productive.  In  the  last 
character,  particularly,  it  is  supreme,  bearing  fruit  year  in  and 
year  out.  .Xo  other  cherry  is  adapted  to  so  great  a  diversity  of 
soil  as  is  Montmorency,  !>y  reason  of  which  with  its  further  capa- 
city to  withstand  heat  and  cold  the  variety  is  suitable  to  nearly 
every  locality  in  the  state.  The  fruit  is  tit  for  culinary  purposes 
several  days  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  a  characteristic  that  adds  fq 
its  value  for  the  market.  Because  of  its  firm  flesh  and  thick 
skin,  it  is  less  subject  to  brown  rot  than  are  most  other  varieties. 
It  is  not  a  dessert  fruit,  but  for  those  who  like  sour  cherries  it 
may  be  eaten  out  of  hand  with  relish  when  fully  ripe.  The 
variety  falls  short  only  in  the  size  of  the  tree  which  is  seldom 
more  than  medium,  but  the  head  is  spreading  and  large  branched 
and  the  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters  thickly  scattered  over  the  whole 
head  so  that  the  total  yield  is  great.  For  any  and  all  purposes 
it  is  the  best  sour  cherr  for  New  York. 


Morello 

Knglish  Morello  is  the  standard  late  sour  cherry  foi^  New  York. 
It  is  not  a  table  fruit  and  can  hardly  be  eaten  out  of  hand  unless 
thoroughly  ripe.  It  is  one  of  the  best  for  culinary  purposes  how- 
ever, having  a  rich  .dark  wine  color,  and  a  pleasant,  sprightly, 
aromatic  flavor.  The  fruit  bears  harvesting  and  shipping  well,  is 
resistant  to  brown  rot,  and  hangs  long  on  the  tree.  The  trees 
are  small,  round  headed,  and  have  branches  with  a  distinct  droop. 
To  be  sufficiently  productive  the  English  Morello  orchard  must  be 
closely  set.  The  trees  are  hardy  but  are  not  always  healthy,  and 
are  not  adapted  to  so  great  a  diversity  of  soil  as  might  be  wished. 
The  variety  is  not  so  popular  now  as  it  once  was. 

SWEET  CHERRIES 

Bing 

But  few  sweet  cherries  e<jual  I>ing  in  size  and  attractiveness, 
and  none  surpass  it  in  quality.  Tt  is,  too,  a  very  good  shipping 
fruit.  The  crop  hangs  well  on  the  trees  and  ripens  at  one  time  so 


1126  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  359.—  MONTMORENCY 
(Three-fourths  natural  size) 


YAUIKTIKS  OK  C  UK  UK  IKS  1127 

there  need  be  but  one  picking.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  or 
not  the  tree  will  succeed  in  all  parts  of  New  York  where  sweet 
cherries  are  grown.  It  is  certain  that  where  the  variety  is  happv 
in  soil  and  climate,  however,  Bing  is  bound  to  be  one  of  the  lead- 
ing commercial  sweet  cherries. 

HI  a  clc  Tartarian 

Black  Tartarian  is  the  favorite  dooryard  and  roadside  cherry 
in  Aew  York,  ranking  second  or  third  among  commercial  sorts  in 
the  state.  The  characters  that  give  it  a  high  place  in  cherry  cul- 
ture are:  first,  its  wide  adaptability  to  soils  and  climates;  secondly, 
the  fruitf  illness,  healthfulness,  and  robustness  of  its  trees  which 
also  heai-  regularly,  live  to  an  old  age,  and  attain  great  size  ;  thirdly, 
the  variety  is  comparatively  free  from  brown  rot  ;  lastly,  the  cher- 
ries, though  not  large,  are  tempting  to  the  eye  from  their  rotund 
form  and  glossy  black  color,  and  are  a  delight  to  the  palate,  the 
handsome  purplish-red  flesh  being  firm  and  crisp  yet  juicy  and 
with  a  sweet,  rich  flavor.  Unfortunately  it  is  a  little  too  soft  to 
handle  well  in  harvesting  and  marketing  or  to  hold  its  shape  as 
a  canned  product.  Its  small  size  is  also  against  it.  --These  defects 
prevent  Black  Tartarian  from  taking  rank  in  commercial  orchards, 
but  for  home  plantations  it  is  one  of  the  best. 


Toe,  long  known  as  Coe's  Transparent,  is  the  first  of  the  light- 
colored  sweet  cherries  to  ripen  and  is  a  splendid  fruit  in  quality 
and  appearance.  Its  chief  defect  is  that  the  fruits  run  small.  The 
tree  characters  are  very  good,  the  trees  being  large,  spreading, 
hardy,  vigorous,  healthy,  and  fruitful.  Coe  is  worthy  a  place  in 
every  home  plantation. 

Early  Purple 

Early  Purple,  better  known  as  Early  Purple  Guigne,  is  a  valu- 
able cherry  on  account  of  its  earliness,  its  attractive  color,  and 
high  quality.  The  trees  are  poor  growers  in  the  nursery  but  in 
the  orchard  take  on  vigor  and  are  as  healthy  as  those  of  any  other 
sweet  cherry.  It  requires  good  care  and  a  choice  cherry  soil.  It 


112S  THE   Fiirrr   LXDI-STKY   ix   Xi-:w    YORK    STATK 


Fie;.  360. —  "ENGLISH  MORELLO 
(Tliree-fourths  natural  size) 


YARIKTIKS  OK  (1n  KIMM  i  s  1120 

is  the  favorite  food  of  the  robin  where  this,  the  worst  of  ;ill  cherry 
pests,  abounds.  Xo  home  collection  should  he  without  this  variety, 
and  it  can  even  be  profitably  grown  as  an  early  cherry  for  local 

markets. 

Elton 

This  variety  is  distinguished  by  the  oblong,  heart-shaped  fruits 
which  are  dark  red  mottled  with  amber,  very  bright,  clear,  and 
glossy.  Unfortunately  the  flesh  is  a  little  too  soft  to  ship  well  but 
is  delicate  and  most  pleasing  to  the  palate,  the  flavor  being 
peculiarly  rich  and  luscious.  The  trees  are  readily  told  by  the 
unusual  dark  red  color  of  the  petioles  of  the  leaves.  The  branches 
are  stout  and  bear  the  crop  thickly,  placed  close  to  the  wood,  and 
in  largo  quantities.  Brown  rot  attacks  this  variety  more  aggres- 
sively than  it  does  any  other  sweet  cherry,  and  for  this  reason 
Kltou  must  remain  for  the  most  part  a  variety  for  the  home 
orchard.  The  tree,  too,  is  rather  tender  to  cold. 

Ida 

Because  of  the  beauty  of  the  fruit,  its  earliness  and  its  good 
tree  characters,  Ida  is  a  general  favorite  in  home  orchards.  It 
can  never  take  a  high  place  among  commercial  cherries  because 
the  fruits  are  soft,  show  bruises  plainly,  and  are  susceptible  to 
brown  rot.  The  trees  are  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive. 

Lambert 

In  shape  Lambert  is  much  like  one  of  its  parents,  the  well-known 
Napoleon,  but  it  is  larger,  more  rotund,  smoother,  clearer,  and 
brighter  —  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  dark-colored  sweet  cher- 
ries. The  flesh  and  flavor  leave  little  to  be  desired ;  the  flesh  is 
purple-red  marbled  with  lighter  red,  firm,  meaty,  and  juicy,  with 
a  sweet,  rich  flavor.  The  tree  is  strong,  vigorous,  healthy,  fruitful, 
i.nd  regular  in  bearing.  The  fruit  sets  in  great  loose  clusters, 
often  a  dozen  or  more  cherries  to  the  fruit  spur.  The  leaves  are 
remarkably  large  and  dark  green,  the  foliage  betokening  the  vigor 
of  the  variety.  Lambert  is  well  worth  testing  for  either  home  or 
market  wherever  the  sweet  cherry  can  be  grown. 


1130  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  361.— SCHMIDT 
(Three-fourths  natural  size) 


VARIETIES  OF  CHERRIES  1131 

Napoleon 

Napoleon  is  the  leading  sweet  cherry  in  New  York.  It  takes 
its  place  by  virtue  of  its  large  size,  handsome  appearance,  high 
quality  of  its  fruit,  and  the  great  productiveness  of  its  trees.  Tho 
flavor  is  rich  and  sweet,  with  abundant  juice  and  §rm  crackling 
flesh,  making  it  a  most  delicious  and  refreshing  cherry  for  dessert, 
and  with  its  large  size  and  attractive  color,  giving,  it  preference 
over  all  other  sweet  cherries  for  culinary  purposes.  The  cherries 
carry  well  and  keep  long.  The  trees  are  productive,  come  in  bear- 
ing early,  and  are  vigorous,  hardy,  and  healthy.  Unfortunately 
the  cherries  crack  in  wet  weather  and  are  very  susceptible  to  brown 
rot.  The  trees,  too,  are  fastidious  to  soils,  thriving  only  in  choice 
cherry  land  and  in  congenial  cherry  climates. 

Schmidt 

Schmidt,  shortened  from  Schmidt's  Bigarreau,  hardly  receives 
the  attention  in  New  York  that  it  deserves.  The  characters  that 
entitle  it  to  a  high  place  are :  its  large  size,  its  round  plump  form, 
jind  glossy,  black  color;  crisp,  firm,  juicy  flesh,  and  sweet,  rich 
flavor ;  dark  ruby-red  color  under  the  skin  which  makes  it  pleasing 
inwardly  and  outwardly ;  freedom  from  brown  rot ;  and  vigorous, 
healthy,  productive  tree. 

Windsor 

Windsor  is  one  of  the  standard  hard-fleshed  cherries  in  New 
York.  In  both  fruit  and  trees  it  seems  to  suit  cherry  growers. 
The  flesh  is  firm,  and  the  product  stands  harvest  and  shipping  well 
;it  a  season  of  the  year  when  brown  rot  is  usually  rife.  The  qual- 
ity is  good,  being  equalled  but  not  surpassed  by  others  of  its  class. 
Tho  trees  are  the  hardiest  of  the  sweet  cherry,  and  are  usually 
fruitful.  They  have  the  faults,  however,  of  not  coming  in  bearing 
early,  of  being  so  varied  in  growth  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  harvest 
the  crop,  and  of  bearing  fruit  that  is  too  much  clustered.  For 
some  reason  or  other  Windsor  is  the  freest  of  all  the  sweet  cherries 
from  thieving  birds.  We  can  join  with  all  who  grow  this  variety 
in  recommending  it  as  one  of  the  best  late  market  sorts. 


1132  THK   FKUIT   INDUSTRY  IN  XE\V   YOUK  STATE 


Fi<;.    .'J)<)'2.—  \Vi.\nsou 
( Three- f curt  hi  natural  size) 


YAUIKTIKS  OK  (  1n  KUUIKS  1133 

Wood 

Wood  has  many  qualities  that  fit  it  for  the  home  orchard  and 
but  few  to  commend  it  for  commercial  plantations.  The  trees  are 
tender  to  cold,  not  very  productive,  and  somewhat  fastidious  to 
soils;  they  are,  however,  vigorous,  healthy,  and  early  in  bearing1. 
The  cherries  arc  beautiful  in  appearance,  delicious  in  flavor,  large, 
and  beautiful  in  color,  but  are  too  soft  to  stand  shipping,  crack 
badly  in  wet  weather,  and  are  susceptible  to  brown  rot. 


Yellow 

Yellow  Spanish  is  notable  for  its  tree  characters.  The  trees 
are  large  and  vigorous,  bear  abundantly  and  regularly,  come  in 
bearing  young,  and  have  the  crop  well  distributed.  The  cherries, 
too,  are  good  in  most  characters  but  rim  a  little  smaller  and  are 
more  subject  to  attacks  of  brown  rot  than  are  several  similar 
kinds.  In  quality  Yellow  Spanish  is  very  good  indeed,  having 
tender  flesh  ami  sweet,  rich  flavor.  It  is  a  splendid  mid-season 
cherry  that  cannot  be  spared  in  New  York  from  either  home  or 
commercial  plantations. 

DUKES 

Late  Duke 

Late  Duke  is  a  variant  of  the  well-known  May  Duke,  differing 
in  ripening  from  two  weeks  to  a  month  later.  The  size,  color, 
flavor,  and  season  of  the  fruit  all  commend  it  as  do  the  vigor, 
health,  and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees.  Ripening  in  a  season  when 
other  cherries  are  gone  or  rapidly  going,  Late  Duke  is  a  valuable 
fruit  in  the  home  orchard  and  for  nearby  markets  to  which  tender- 
fieshed  varieties  can  be  shipped.  Those  who  want  late  cherries 
can  have  them  by  planting  this  variety  on  a  northern  slope,  against 
a  northern  wall,  or  in  a  cool  soil,  where  a  part  of  the  crop  at  least 
will  remain  until  August. 


Duke 

May  Duke  is  one  of  the  oldest,  and,  the  world  over,  one  of  the 
most  popular  cherries.  It  is  finely  flavored  especially  when  pre- 
pared for  the  table,  is  ^delicious  to  eat  out  of  hand,  is  early,  may 
he  left  to  hang  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  It  thrives  in  greater 


1134  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

variations  of  soil  and  climate  than  do  other  cherries,  and  has 
trees  that  are  as  fruitful  as  any,  being  also  hardy,  vigorous,  and 
healthy.  May  Duke  fills  a  particular  place  in  the  cherry  orchard 
as  a  fruit  for  home  use  and  local  markets  and  should  be  much 
more  widely  planted  in  Xew  York. 

Heine  Hortense 

Several  qualities  fit  Reine  Hortense  for  both  home  and  com- 
mercial plantations:  The  fruits  are  excellent  in  quality,  hand- 
some and  large,  and  hang  long  to  the  trees.  Unfortunately  the 
fruits  do  not  stand  handling  and  harvesting  and  marketing  as 
well  as  some  other  Dukes,  and  are  rather  too  susceptible  to  brown 
rot  for  a  good  commercial  cherry.  The  trees  have  several 
faults:  They  are  of  but  medium  size,  are  not  so  productive  as 
some  other  Dukes,  and  do1  well  only  on  choice  cherry  soils  and 
with  good  care.  The  smallness  of  the  trees  fits  the  variety 
admirably  for  garden  plantations  of  fruit.* 


*  See  "  Cherries  of  New  York,"  by  Professor  Hedrick.     Published  by  State 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 


CULTURAL    METHODS    IN    GROWING    THE    CHERRY 
W.   L.  McKAY,  GENEVA,  N.  Y. 


As  in  the  case  of  most  horticultural 
pursuits  what  iiuv  one  person  may  have 
discovered  from  the  standpoint  of  his 
experience  under  local  conditions  may 
not  always  apply  to  other  localities,  or 
may,  possibly,  even  vary  from  the  experi- 
ence of  other  growers  in  the  same  locality. 
The  little  I  may  have  to  tell  about  cherry 
"•rowing  will  be  conclusions  founded  on 
the  results  of  an  expedience  of  nearly 
twenty-five  years  at  Geneva. 

ADAPTATION   OF  VARIETIES  TO   MARKET 

Before  planting,  I  asked  myself,  as  all  growers  must  do,  the 
two  most  important  questions  of  all  that  confront  the  prospec- 
tive cherry  grower,  "Will  cherries  grow  in  my  locality?"  and 
"What  market  do  I  wish  to  enter?"  As  I  planted  for  the 
canning  trade,  I  planted  only  two  varieties — Montmorency  and 
Napoleon.  For  this  trade  the  Napoleon  is  the  best  sweet  variety, 
although  Yellow  Spanish  is  also  used,  but  Napoleon  is  preferred 
as  having  less  color.  Montmorency  is,  of  course,  the  one  ex- 
cellent sour  variety  for  canning,  although  Morello  is  much  used 
also.  At  best,  however,  the  Morello  does  not  produce  more  than 
1  in  If  the  quantity  for  the  same  acreage  that  the  Montmorency 
produces.  Just  at  present  those  planting  for  shipment  to  city 
markets  are  finding  that  the  blacks  command  the  highest  prices, 
while,  for  a  local  market,  all  the  varieties  named  including  the 
blacks  give  a  good  assortment. 


ESSENTIALS    FOR   VIGOROUS    GROWTH 

There  is  a  common  impression  that  cherries  may  as  well  be 
planted  on  poorer  land ;  this  is  a  mistake.  On  the  contrary  let 
me  strongly  urge  that  the  cherry  orchard  be  given  as  good  as 

[1135] 


ll.'Jl) 


TIIK   FKUIT   1. MHSTIJY    i.\    XK\Y    YOKK    STATK 


( 'i  i/rriJAi.   AI  KTiions   i.\   (!I:<>\VIN<;  TIFK  (IHKIJUY        1137 

there  is  on  the  farm.  The  hind  should  be  prepared  by  deep 
plowing  jind  good  fitting,  as  for  all  orchard  planting,  For  the 
sour  varieties  in  our  climate  I  much  prefer  fall  planting;  for 
sweet  varieties  in  as  severe  a  climate  as  we  have  in  New  York 
State,  probably  spring  planting  will  be.  best  for  the  majority  of 
planters,  but  it  should  be  done  jis  cjirly  in  spring  as  possible. 
Planting  should  be  so  directed  that  the  point  where  the  tree 
is  budded,  as  shown  by  the  curve  a  few  inches  above  the  roots, 
will  be  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface.  After  the  ground  is 
well  settled  this  will  bring  the  bud  at  about  the  surface. 


FIG.  364. —  A  THIRSTY   DAY  IN  THE  ORCHARD 

The  age  of  the  tree  planted  is  rather  unessential ;  I  have 
planted  one-,  two-,  and  three-year  trees  successfully.  The  aver- 
age planter  will  probably  be  better  satisfied  with  a  two-year  tree, 
although  the  orchardist  who  has  a  preference  for  one-year-old 
trees  is  perfectly  safe  in  using  them. 


1138  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


^  > 

z  a 


CULTURAL  METHODS  IN  GROWING  THE  CHERRY       1139 

The  stock  on  which  the  tree  is  budded  may  or  may  not  be 
essential.  On  my  own  land  a  Montmorency  orchard  that  I  know 
to  be  budded  entirely  on  mahaleb  stock  is  my  best  orchard. 
In  planting  on  a  light  soil,  however,  general  experience,  I  believe, 
goes  to  show  that  trees  budded  on  nm,//ard  seedlings  do  better, 
and  on  that  possibility  under  most  circumstances  I  should  advise 
trees  on  mazzard  if  one  can  obtain  them  and  wishes  to  pay  the 
additional  cost.  « 

I  have  planted  most  of  my  Montmorency  trees  14  feet  apart 
in  each  direction  —  too  close  of  course  for  the  best  orchard 
when  20  or  25  years  old ;  but  with  22*2  trees  to  the  acre  as  against 
less  than  half  that  number  if  planted  20  by  20  feet.  Planted 
in  this  manner  a  five-acre  orchard  will  be  worth  many  more 
thousands  of  dollars  to  the  owner  from  the  dozen  or  more  crops 
it  will  yield  before  it  need  be  opened  up.  When  the  proper 
time  comes,  by  removing  alternate,  diagonal  rows,  the  trees  will 
be  about  20  by  20  feet  apart.  In  the  meantime  it  has  not  cost 
any  more  to  cultivate  an  acre  of  land  having  222  trees  than 
one  having  only  109  trees. 

ESSENTIALS  OF    CULTURE 

Drainage 

In  order  to  grow  cherry  trees,  the  land  must  not  be  wet;  they 
cannot  possibly  live  in  wet  land.  If  underdraining  is  necessary, 
the  drains  must  be  kept  working;  if  they  become  stopped,  they 
should  be  repaired  at  once. 

Spraying 

During  most  years  the  spraying  of  sour  cherries  is  labor  and 
material  thrown  away,  but  let  me  urge  with  all  the  emphasis 
at  my  command  that  the  grower  keep  right  on  throwing  it  away; 
for  about  once  in  so  many  years,  if  spraying  has  not  been  done 
he  will  be  the  sorriest  man  in  town,  and  will  say  all  manner  of 
uncomplimentary  things  about  himself.  I  have  usually  found 
one  thorough  bordeaux  spraying  sufficient  for  Montmorency  if 
it  is  applied  when  the  fruit  is  about  half  grown,  although  I  have 
sprayed  when  the  cherries  begin  to  show  decided  color,  but  pre- 
fer to  do  the  work  much  earlier.  If  a  second  spray  is  given, 
6 


1140 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


however,  it  should  be  applied  as  the  fruit  is  commencing  to  color. 
I  shall  hereafter  give  the  two  sprayings.  The  past  season,  1915, 
showed  to  a  marked  degree  at  Geneva,  the  necessity  of  the  prac- 
tice, for  every  uiisprayed  orchard  rotted  badly.  One  unsprayed 
orchard  that  was  visited  employed  nearly  as  many  sorters  as 
pickers,  while  in  well-sprayed  orchards  the  labor  of  sorting  was 
almost  nominal.  Sweet  varieties  are  much  more  liable  to  rot, 
and  I  advise  three  sprayings,  the  first  to  be  applied  as  soon  as 
the  calices  have  dropped.  The  best  spraying  can  be  given  in  a 
high  wind,  when  the  spray  will  sift  through  the  trees.  If  there  is 
no  wind,  the  foliage  of  the  sweet  varieties  protects  the  fruit  from 
the  spray  much  more  than  does  that  of  sour  varieties.  The  sweet 
varieties  also  require  the  dormant  spray  for  scale,  which  the  sours 
do  not.  In  spraying  both  kinds  for  rot  I  have  always  preferred 
the  bordeaux  to  any  other  spray. 


FIG.   366. —  THREE-YEAR  MONTMORENCY  ORCHARD  ON  FARM  OF 
W.  L.  MCKAY,  GENEVA,  N.  Y. 

Cover  Crops 

As  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested,  it  should  be  seeded  to  a 
cover  crop.  The  one  I  have  used  most  has  been  winter  vetch,  15 
to  20  pounds ;  cowhorn  turnip,  one  pound ;  and  buckwheat,  aboul 
one  and  one-half  bushels  an  acre.  This,  of  course,  is  the  mx 
desirable,  but  if  the  land  becomes  heavy  and  hard  to  work,  a 
buckwheat  cover  crop  will  soon  improve  the  physical  conditioi 


CULTURAL  METHODS  IN  GROWING  THE  CHERRY       1141 

of  the  soil.  Probably  no  better  cover  crop  can  be  had  than  that 
recommended  by  the  State  Experiment  Station  of  one  bushel 
barley  or  oats,  preferably  the  former,  15  pounds  of  winter  vetch, 
\-l  pounds  red  clover,  and  one  pound  cowhorn  turnip.  If  the 
grower  is  prevented  from  cover  cropping,  as  may  happen  oc- 
casionally, cultivation  should  cease  after  picking,  and  weeds, 
which  are  much  better  than  nothing,  should  be  allowed  to  grow. 
With  fairly  systematic  cover  cropping  and  reasonably  good 
cultivation  we  have  had  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  thirteen 
heavy  crops,  but  this  of  course  is  on  heavy,  strong  land.  We 
have  never  used  commercial  fertilizers,  and  during  the  period 
named  our  orchards  have  had  only  two  light  dressings  of  manure. 

Cultivation 

My  Napoleons  have  always  been  practically  in  sod,  being  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  a  roadway  through  the  farm,  28  feet  apart, 
with  grass  eight  or  ten  feet  either  side  of  the  trees,  extending 


..  .'!«7.--\Ai>oLEON  ORCHARD  IN  BLOOM;  SPRAYING  APPARATUS  IN  FORE- 
GROUND.   FARM  OP  W.  L.  McKAY,  GENEVA,  N.  Y. 

to  the  roadway  on  one  side,  and  with  cultivated  land  on  the  other. 
1  hey  have  always  borne  satisfactory  crops  of  large  fruit  when  the 
blossoms  have  escaped  injury  from  spring  frosts,  which  has-  been 
about  three  quarters  of  the  time.  The  trees  are  perfectly  healthy. 


114:2  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

With  Montmorency,  however,  while  I  have  myself  never  tried 
growing  them  in  sod,  my  observation  leads  me  to  believe  that  if 
good-sized  fruit  is  to  be  expected,  and  especially  if  the  season  be 
dry,  thorough  cultivation  is  necessary.  Such  cultivation  should 
begin  at  least  as  early  as  the  fruit  is  formed,  and  earlier  if  dry, 
and  continue  as  late  as  it  will  be  possible  to  drive  through  the 
orchard  without  damaging  the  fruit.  More  or  less  work  should 
be  "done  according  to  the  amount  of  rainfall,  and  if  the  weather 
is  dry  the  orchard  should  be  cultivated  as  often  as  twice  a  week. 

Although  an  advocate  of  thorough  cultivation  for  cherries,  it 
is  only  proper  for  me  to  state  that  some  of  the  best  crops  of 
Morello  I  have  ever  seen  were  grown  in  sod  on  the  Hammond 
farm,  adjoining  my  own,  several  years  in  succession.  On  the 
same  farm  in  1913,  a  heavy  crop  of  Montmorency  with  very 
large-sized  fruit  was  grown  without  cultivation,  but  after  a  heavy 
cover  crop  of  vetch  had  been  planted.  Notwithstanding  these 
exceptions,  I  cannot  but  believe  that  for  sour  cherries  at  least, 
thorough  cultivation  will  prove  its  value  in  average  results  f( 
a  term  of  years. 

Pruning 

When  planting  is  done  in  the  fall  there  should  be  no  prunii 
until  spring.  If  one-year-old  trees  were  planted,  they  should  n< 
be  touched  except  to  be  headed  off  at  the  proper  height  in  case 
they  would  otherwise  make  too  high  a  head.  If  older  trees  ai 
planted,  all  branches  not  needed  for  the  framework  of  the  ti 
should  be  removed,  and  the  remaining  branches  should  not 
pruned.  The  newly  planted  tree  should  have  plenty  of  folia^ 
as  much  and  as  soon  as  possible.  The  last  year's  growth  which 
is  left  for  the  framework  will  give  more  foliage  if  left  entire, 
since  the  large,  perfectly  developed  buds  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  which  would  be  removed  if  pruned,  are  the  buds  that 
give  the  most  luxuriant  foliage  in  the  shortest  time.  Further 
than  this  it  is  not  good  practice  to  prune  cherry  trees  at  all. 
except  to  remove  dead  and  broken  branches  incident  to  picking. 
and  to  remove  entire  such  other  limbs  as  are  not  desired. 


CHERRY  INSECTS 


C.  R.  CROSBY 
Extension  Professor  of  Entomology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  most  important  insects  attacking 
the  cherry  are  the  plum  curculio,  the 
die  IT  v  fruit-flies,  the  cherry  plant-louse, 
the  pear  slug,  and,  in  the  case  of  sweet 
cherries,  the  San  Jose  scale.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1915  there  was  an  unusual  out- 
break of  the  red  cherry  leaf  beetle,  an 
insect  that  normally  feeds  on  the  wild 
cherry  and  only  occasionally  attacks  the 
cultivated  varieties. 


THE   PLUM    CURCULIO 

Plum  curculio  (Coiiotraclielus  nenuphar)  is  the  principal  cause 
<>)'  knotty  mid  wormy  cherries.  It  is  also  a  serious 'enemy  of  the 
j tin  111,  prune,  peach,  and  apple. 

The  adult  plum  curculio  is  a  small,  rough  snout  beetle,  about 
one-fifth  inch  in  length,  mottled  with  black,  gray,  and  brownish 
(  Fig.  368).  On  the  middle  of  each  wing  cover  is  a  black  shining 
hump.  The  small,  sharp  jaws  are  situated  at  the  tip  of  the  snout 
which  hangs  down  somewhat  like  the  trunk  of  an  elephant.  The 
beetles  pass  the  winter  hidden  away  in  stone  piles,  stone  walls,  in 
•edges,  and  under  trash,  in  sheltered 
places.  They  come  out. of  hibernation  in 
the  spring  about  the  time  the  buds  arc 
bursting.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  sets,  the 
heetles  hcii'in  their  destructive  work.  Two 
kinds  of  punctures  are  made:  those  for 
feeding  only,  and  those  for  the  reception  of 
the  egg.  In  feeding  the  beetle  cuts  a  small 
round  hole  through  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  then  eats  out  a  cavity 
in  the  pulp  as  deep  as  it  can  reach  with  its  snout.  In  egg  laying 

[1143] 


FIG.    368. —  PLUM    CUR- 
CULIO ADULT 

(Photo  by  Slingerland.) 


1144 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  369. —  EGG-LAYING  PUNC- 
TURES OF  THE  PLUM  'CuR- 
CULIO  IN  CHERRIES 


the  female  makes  a  similar  puncture  under  the  skin  of  the  fruit, 

places    an    egg    therein    and    then 

I        M  W  ^^  makes    a   semicircular   cut    around 

J^fl&f      \J^  an(^  under  it  so  as  to  leave  the  egg 

Im  ml        V^^  in  a  flap  of  the  flesh   (Fig.   369). 

11     i&  The  egg  hatches  in  a  week  or  less, 

jr"'        Wk          and  the  grub  burrows  to  the  stone, 

K     A^  mi        where  it  completes  its  growth.     In 

•       the  case  of  plums  and  peaches  the 

infested  fruit  usually  falls  to  the 

ground,  but  with  most  varieties  of 

JP  ^k        cherries  they  remain  on  the  trees. 

In  about  twenty  days  from  the 
time  the  egg  is  laid  the  grub  be- 
comes full-grown,  leaves  the  fruit, 
and  burrows  a  short  distance  into 

the  ground.  Here  in  a  small  earthen  cell  the  transformation 
to  the  adult  takes  place.  In  New  York  the  majority  of  the  cur- 
culios  are  in  the  ground  between  July  10  and  August  10.  Thev 
are  then  in  a  delicate,  helpless  condition,  and  are  almost  certain 
to  perish  if  their  cells  are  broken  open.  The  beetles  emerge  from 
the  ground  during  August  and  early  September,  and,  after  feeding 
for  some  time  on  the  fruit,  go  into  hibernation.  There  is  only  one 
generation  annually. 

Control 

The  plum  curculio  is  always  most  abundant  where  good  hiber- 
nating quarters  are- available.  The  first  step  in  the  control  of  this 
insect  consists  in  reducing  to  a  minimum  such  shelter  by  clear i 
away  all  stone  piles,  stone  walls,  hedges,  and  similar  hiding  pla 
After  such  conditions  have  been  remedied,  it  is  not  difficult 
control  the  curculio  on  cherries  by  spraying.  Good  results  have 
been  obtained  by  using  arsenate  of  lead,  two  and  one-half  poun 
in  50  gallons  of  lime-sulphur  (32  degrees  Baume),  at  the  rate 
of  1  gallon  in  75  gallons  of  water.  Two  applications  should  be 
made,  the  first  soon  after  the  petals  fall,  and  the  second  a  week 
or  ten  davs  later. 


CHERRY  INSECTS 


1145 


CHERRY    FRUIT-FLIES 

Cherries,  especially  the  late  varieties, 
are  liable  to  be  infested  with  the  maggots 
of  two  speties  of  spotted  winged  flies 
(Rhagoletis  diir/i'lata,  and  Rhagolitis 
fausta),  as  shown  in  Fig.  370.  These 
maggots  are  smaller  and  less  curved  than 
the  grub  of  the  plum  curculio.  The 
parent  flies  appear  on  the  trees  some  time 
in  June  but  do  not  begin  to  lay  eggs  until 
about  two  weeks  later.  The  female  inserts 
the  egg  in  a  puncture  through  the  skin 
of  the  fruit.  The  maggot  burrows 
through  the  flesh,  causing  decay  to  set  in  as  soon  as  the  cherry 
begins  to  ripen.  As  the  maggot  becomes  larger,  .breathing  holes 
nrc  made  through  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Cherries  infested  by 
fruit-fly  maggots  have  a  characteristic  appearance;  as  decay 
advances  portions  of  the  surface  become  sunken  as  shown  in  Fig. 
371.  The  maggots  become  full-grown  with  the  ripening  of  the 
cherry,  leave  the  fruit,  and,  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
transform  into  puparia  which  somewhat  resemble  grains  of  wheat. 
In  this  condition  the  insect  passes  the  winter.  There  is  only  one 
brood  a  ve.ir. 


FIG.  370. —  CHERRY 
FRUIT-FLY  RESTING 
ON  FRUIT 

(Photo  by  Illingworth.) 


FIG.  371.— INFESTED  CHERRIES  AT  ABOUT 
THE  TIME  THE  LARVAE  LEAVE  THEM 


1146  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Control 

Cherries  may  be  protected  from  maggot  injury  by  killing  tbe 
parent  flies  with  a  sweetened  poisoned  spray  before  they  have  de- 
posited their  eggs.  The  poison  should  be  applied  at^the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  flies  and  should  be  repeated  weekly,  or  after  each 
rain,  since  the  poison  is  easily  Avashed  off.  This  treatment  should 
be  continued  until  no  more  flies  are  found  on  the  trees.  Good 
results  in  killing  the  flies  have  been  obtained  by  using  the  fol- 
lowing mixture:  arsenate  of  lead,  3  ounces;  molasses,  1  pint; 
water,  4  gallons. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  large  quantity  of  this  mixture,  or  to 
make  a  thorough  application  —  one  pint  is  sufficient  for  a  tree  of 
moderate  size.  The  liquid  should  be  sprinkled  over  the  tree  in 
rather  large  drops;  a  small  garden  syringe,  holding  about  a  pint, 
will  be  found  convenient  for  the  purpose. 


FIG.  372.—  CHERRY  LEAVES  CURLED  BY 
APHIS 

(Photo  by  Matheson.) 
THE    CHERRY    PLANT-LOUSE 

This  blackish  plant-louse  (Myzits  cerasi)  is  a  serious  enemy  of 
both  sour  and  sweet  cherries,  but  is  more  injurious  to  the  latter. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage.  The  black,  shining  eggs  are 


CHERRY  INSECTS  1147 

attached  to  the  bark  of  the  smaller  branches,  generally  near  the 
buds.  They  hatch  just  us  the  buds  arc  opening,  and  the  young 
lice  cluster  on  the  opening  buds.  These  lice  are  all  females  and 
reproduce  without  being  fertilized.  They  multiply  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity,  so  that  within  a  few  weeks  the  undersides  of  the 
leaves  and  the  tip  of  the  branches  are  thickly  covered  with  them. 
The  leaves  become  curled,  the  branches  stunted,  the  fruit  remains 
small  and  may  fall  prematurely  (Fig.  372.). 

Control 

The  cherry  plant-louse  can  be  controlled  by  very  thorough 
spraying  with  "  Black  Leaf  40  "  tobacco  extract,  1  pint  to  100 
gallons  of  water  in  which  5  pounds  of  soap  has  been  dissolved.  At 
least  10  gallons  of  this  mixture  should  be  applied  to  a  tree  of 
moderate  size.  The  application  should  be  made  while  the  lice  are 
clustered  on  the  opening  buds.  They  are  then  relatively  few  in 
number  and  are  exposed  so  that  they  -can  easily  be  hit  with  the 
spray.  After  the  lice  have  curled  the  leaves  it  is  very  difficult 
to  reach  them.  To  be  successful  the  work  should  be  done  at  the 
right  time  and  with  thoroughness, 

THE  PEAR  SLUG 

The  pear  slug  (Eriocampoides  limacina)  is  also  a  serious  enemy 
of  the  cherry.  The  injury  is  most  severe  on  trees  recently 
planted ;  the  slugs  may  destroy  the  foliage  of  such  trees  before  they 
become  fully  established,  with  the  result  that  a  large  proportion 
are  killed. 

The  pear  slug  passes  the  winter  in  the  larval  stage  in  earthen 
cocoons  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
transformation  to  the.  adult  takes  place  in  the  spring,  and  the 
glossy  black,  four-winged  flies  appear  on  the  trees  about  the  middle 
of  May.  The  female  is  provided  with  a  sharp  saw-edged  ovipositor 
by  means  of  which  she  inserts  her  eggs  in  a  blisterlike  cavity  be- 
tween the  two  layers  of  the  leaf.  The  egg  hatches  in  about  two 
weeks,  and  the  larva  escapes  through  a  cut  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaf.  The  larvae  soon  become  covered  with  a  sticky  slime, 
which  is  retained  until  they  are  full-grown  and  which  gives  them 
the  appearance  of  small  snails.  In  form  they  somewhat  resemble 


1148  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

a  tadpole.  They  feed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  eating  only 
the  epidermis  and  leaving  the  skeleton  of  veins  and  the  lower  epi- 
dermis to  turn  brown  and  wither.  In  severe  cases  the  tree  is  de- 
foliated and  the  crop  fails  to  mature.  A  second  brood  of  the  flies 
appear  in  late  July  and  early  August  and  lay  eggs  for  another 
brood  of  slugs. 

Control 

The  pear  slug  is  readily  controlled  by  spraying  the  trees  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  in  100  gallons  of  water.  The  applica- 
tion should  be  made  about  the  time  the  eggs  are  hatching. 

SAN    JOSE    SCALE 

While  the  sour  cherry  is  nearly  immune  to  the  San  Jose  scale 
(Aspidiotus  perniciosus) ,  the  sweet  varieties  often  become  badly 

infested.  The  treatment  for 
scale  on  sweet  cherries  is  the 
same  as  that  commonly  prac- 
ticed for  its  control  on  other 
orchard  trees.  Good  results 
may  be  obtained  by  thorough 
spraying  with  lime-sulphur  (32 
degrees  Baume),  1  gallon  in  8 
gallons  of  water. 

THE    RED    CHERRY    LEAF-BEETLE 

From  time  to  time  since 
1894  local  outbreaks  of  this 
brick-red  leaf-beetle  ( Galeru- 
celld  c&W'Collis)  have  occurred 
in  the  northern  states  from 
Michigan  to  Xew  Hampshire, 
In  May  and  early  June  of 

FIG.  373.-  LEAVES  RIDDLED  BY         1915  the  teetles  were  fmmd  in 
RED  CHERRY  LEAF-BEETLE  great   numbers   on    their    food- 

(Photo  by  Matheson.)  n         , 

plant,     the    wild    red    cnerry 

(Prunus  pennsylvanica] ,  in  southwestern  New  York.  About  the 
same  time  they  swarmed  in  great  numbers  into  the  peach,  plum, 


CHERRY  INSECTS 


1149 


and  cherry  orchards  in  the  western  and  southwestern  part  of  the 
state,  and  in  many  cases  caused  considerable  injury  by  riddling 
the  leaves. 


FIG.  374.—  RED  CHERRY  LEAF-BEETLE 
(Drawing  by  8.  C.  Bishop.) 

The  beetle  is  about  one-fifth  inch  in  length  and  is  brick-red  in 
color  with  black  legs  and  antennae  (Fig.  374).  Although  the  larvae 
have  been  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  cultivated  cherry,  most  of  the 
young  develop  on  the  wild  red  cherry.  The  beetles  deposit  their 
oval,  pale-yellow  eggs  in  June  and  July.  The  eggs  hatch  in  ten 
days  or  more,  and  the  larvae  skeletonize  the  leaves,  only  the  larger 
veins  being  left.  The  full-grown  larva  is  about  one-fifth  inch,  in 
length  and  blackish  in  color.  The  new  crop  of  beetles  appears  in 
late  summer,  and,  after  feeding  a  short  time  on  the  leaves,  they  go 
into  hibernation,  where  they  remain  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
following  May.  There  is  only  one  generation  annually. 

Control 

The  red  cherry  leaf  beetle  may  be  poisoned  by  spraying  the  trees 
u'lth  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  in  50  gallons  of  water.  The  appli- 
<-ation  should  be  made  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY 

LEX  R.  HESLER 
Assistant  Professor   of  Plant   Pathology,   Cornell   University,   Ithaca,   X.   Y. 

Powdery  mildew,  caused  by  Podosphaera  oxyacanthae  (De  (V) 
De  Bary,  is  found  on  other  plants  besides  the  cherry,  such  as  the 
apple,  pear,  quince,  plum,  hawthorn,  blueberry,  and  persimmon. 
It  is  in  the  nurseries  of  Xew  York  State  that  destruction  runs  high, 
although  orchard  cherries  are  often  seriously  affected.  Budded 
sour  cherry  stock  is  said  to  be  the  most  severly  attacked,  and  yet 
sweet  cherry  varieties  and  mazzard  stocks  are  often  troubled. 
Mildew  is  usually  most  prevalent  following  a.  period  of  heavy 
rainfall. 


FIG.  375. —  POWDERY  MILDEW  ox  SOUR  CHERRY  TWIGS  AND   LKAVKS:    HCAI.T 
TWIG  AT  LEFT  AND  DISEASED  TWIG  AT  RIGHT 


Affected  trees  are  generally  recognized  by  an  upward  rolling 
of  the  foliage;  the  young  shoots  and  branch  tips  are  also  affected 
(Fig.  375).  On  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  may  be  seen  a  tangle 
of  white,  feltlike  threads  of  the  fungus.  With  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  white,  feltlike  mass,  stalks  are  projected  into  the 
air;  these  bear  the  summer  spores,  which  are  produced  in  groat 
numbers  and  which  spread  the  mildew  parasite  throughout  the 
summer.  By  midsummer  small  black  specks  may  be  observed 
scattered  over  the  felty  mass.  These  specks  are  the  fruiting 

[1150] 


DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY  1151 

ho* lies  of  the  fungus  and  the  organs  by  which  the  fungus  hiber- 
nates. In  spring  or  early  summer,  winter  spores,  which  were  de- 
veloped the  preceding  fall,  are  discharged  and  initiate  the  first 
infection.  Summer  spores  are  soon  developed,  and  new  infections 
follow. 

Good  control  has  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tion diluted  1  to  50.  The  addition  of  three  pounds  of  iron  sul- 
phate to  ."><>  gallons  of  the  mixture  is  said  to  have  a  tendency  to 
reduce  possible  injury  to  the  foliage  and  also  to  increase  the  ad- 
hesiveness of  the  mixture.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
as  soon  as  the  disease  appears,  the  frequency  of  succeeding  ap- 
plications depending  on  the  prevalence  of  the  disease,  which  is 
largely  determined  by  weather  conditions.  Shot-hole,  or  leaf 
•spot,  and  powdery  mildew  may  be  controlled  by  one  schedule  of 
spraying. 

Kcr  brown  rot  and  leaf  spot,  see  discussion  under  plum  dis- 
eases, pages  1192  and  1195. 


MARKETING  CHERRIES 


0.  K.   SCOON,  GENEVA,  N.  Y. 

"  Study  the  demand  of  your  market "  is 
as  good  a  rule  in  deciding  what  varieties  of 
cherries  to  plant  as  it  is  in  buying  dry  goods 
or  shoes.  The  canners  do  not,  as  a  general 
thing,  buy  the  red,  sweet  cherries :  they  pay 
a  good  price  for  white  ones.  On  account  of 
their  susceptibility  to  rot  during  rainy,  h< 
weather  at  ripening  period,  however,  tin 
are  not  in  as  high  favor  with  growers  as  tl 
hard-fleshed  red  varieties.  Among  the* 

Windsor  and  Schmidt's  are  probably  the  best  in  size  and  goo< 
shipping  qualities.     They  ripen  just  before  the  sour  varieties,  a: 
so  extend  the  season  for  picking  and  marketing,   enabling  tl 
grower    to    arrange    for    the    same    help    and    give    continuoi 
employment. 

THREE  DESIRABLE  VARIETIES 

The  three  principal  varieties  of  sour  cherries  are  Early  Kiel 
mond,  Montmorency,  and  English  Morello,  named  in  the  order  of 
ripening.  Early  Richmond  is  not  the  equal  of  the  other  two  in 
that  it  is  smaller,  has  a  large  pit,  and  thin,  watery  flesh ;  but  it 
comes  at  a  season  when  no  other  sour  cherry  is  in  market  and 
has  considerable  demand  on  that  account.  Montmorency  is  the 
popular  cherry.  More  tons  of  this  than  of  all  other  varieties 
combined  are  put  on  all  markets  and  the  canners  use  it  almost  ex- 
clusively. 

INCREASED    PLANTINGS    CALL    FOR    NEW    MARKETS 

Until  the  last  two  or  three  years  the  canning  factories  were 
able  to  use  all  the  sour  cherries  offered  for  sale,  but  the  plantings 
have  been  so  largely  increased  in  recent  years  that  new  markets 
must  be  found  and  the  general  use  extended.  This  seems  to  be 
the  condition  of  all  kinds  of  fruit  at  the  present  time;  and 

[1152] 


MARKETING  CHERRIES 


1153 


whether  the  public  can  be  educated  to  use  all  that  will  be  pro- 
duced is  a  problem  for  the  future  that  will  $all  for  an  entirely 
new  type  of  business  ability  than  that  which  has  been  put  into  this 
end  of  the  fruit  industry  heretofore. 


l'i<i.    376.—  PICKING    MONTMORENCY   CHERRIES 
ix    ORCHARD    OF    W.    L.    McKAY,    GENEVA, 

N.  Y. 


That  the  consumption  of  sherries  can  be.  greatly  extended,  the 
following  incidents  will  show: 

A  well-known  fruit  grower  who  had  a  young  orchard  coming 
into  bearing  near  a  large  city  in  Massachusetts  went  to. a  grocer 
nnd  asked  whether  he  could  sell  some  sour  cherries.  The  grocer 
said  he  never  had,  but  would  try  a  few  in  quart  berry  baskets. 
Customers  tasted  of  these  and  exclaimed,  "  Why,  they  are  sour !  " 
The  grocer  persuaded  them  to  try  a  few  for  home  use,  however, 
and  the  orders  soon  increased  to  a  considerable  trade. 


1154 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


In  another  case  an  auto  party  stopped  by  the  roadside  where  a 
fruit  grower  was  picking  cherries,  and  wanted  to  buy  a  basketful 
to  eat.  The  people  came  from  a  section  of  another  state  where 
no  cherries  were  raised,  and  within  a  few  days  the  grower  re- 
ceived an  order  for  six  baskets  for  family  use.  When  the  fruit 
arrived  their  neighbors  wanted  some,  and  a  much  larger  order 
was  sent  accompanied  by  the  cash.  This  trade  has  increased 
from  year  to  year,  until  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  disposed 
of  in  this  manner.  The  grower  has  charged  a  fair  price  but 
much  less  than  his  customers  would  have  to  pay  at  the  store.  He 
has  continued  to  send  his  customers  good  fruit  carefully  packed 
and  has  opened  up  an  entirely  new  market.  It  is  easy  to  see  how 
much  a  convenient  package,  with  the  grower's  name  and  address 
plainly  stamped  on  the  cover,  the  name  of  the  variety  and  a 
bright-colored  picture  of  the  fruit,  together  with  a  few  brief 
directions  for  cooking  and  canning,  will  aid  in  extending  this 
kind  of  market. 


FIG.  377. —  PICKING  AND  PACKING  CHERRIES  IN  ORCHARD  OF  W.  L.  MCKAY, 

GENEVA,  N.  Y. 

PACKAGES    AND   HARVESTING 

Some  grocery  trade  demands  cherries,  even  the  sour  varieties, 
put  up  the  same  as  berries  in  quart  baskets  packed  in  crates  or 
carriers.  For  most  markets,  however,  the  six-pound  basket  with 
a  good  handle  is  the  most  convenient  package.  If  the  fruit  is 
carefully  packed  with  stems  on,  it  can  be  shipped  in  iced  ca,rs 


MARKETING  CHERRIES  1155 

and  sent  by  freight  as  long  distances  as  plums  or  peaches.  Like 
other  fniits,  cherries  will  *'  stand  up  "  much  longer  when  grown  in 
a  dry  season  than  in  a  wet  one.  In  a  rainy  season,  picking- 
should  begin  three  or  four  days  earlier  in  the  ripening  process 
than  is  safe  to  wait  in  dry  weather.  The  period  that  may  be 
counted  on  for  picking  sweet  cherries  is  about  one  week  and  for 
sour  ones,  two  weeks.  In  large  commercial  orchards  the  usunl 
method  is  to  begin  picking  as  soon  <as  the  fruit  is  ripe  enough  to 
be  all  taken  from  the  trees,  making  but  one  picking,  although  it 
may  be  necessary  to  leave  some  in  the  center  of  the  trees  during 
the  first  two  or  three  days.  This,  however,  increases  the  cost  of 
harvesting,  as  it  is  expensive  to  go  over  the  trees  a  second  time 
moving  ladders  and  baskets. 


FIG.  378. —  LOADING  CHERRIES  FOR  CANNING  FACTORY 

HELPERS  FOR  HARVESTING 

For  the  smaller  orchards  the  help  employed  consists  of  women 
and  children  from  nearby  towns,  but  where  large  numbers  are  re- 
quired, Italians  or  other  foreigners  are  brought  from  the  cities 
nnd  housed  in  the  orchards.  The  great  advantage  of  this  plan  is 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  furnish  teams  to  carry  the  helpers 
daily  to  and  from  the  orchard,  and  they  are  on  hand  to  work 
during  that  part  of  the  day  which  has  been  broken  into  by  rain, 
even  though  it  be  only  for  an  hour  or  two  at  the  close  of  the  day. 
This  precious  time  would  be  lost  if  day  helpers  were  employed. 


1156 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ^N~Ew  YORK  STATE 


TABLE  SHOWUVG  NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS  OF  CHERRIES 
IN  NEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES 

(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 

County  Trees 

Albany     12,355 

Allegany    6 , 019 

Broome    11,094 

Cattaraugus     8 , 464 

Cayuga    14*,390 

Chautauqua    24 , 483 

Chemung   7,219 

Chenango     3 , 603 

Clinton    3,810 

Columbia 78,526 

Cortland    8, 197 

Delaware     5 , 759 

Dutchess    7 . 097 

Erie    29,483 

Essex     4,273 

Franklin    376 

Fulton    736 

Genesee    11,070 

Greene 9,92? 

Hamilton    3      

Herkimer    2 , 581 

Jefferson    4 , 631                   1 . 

Kings     

Lewis  325 

Livingston    7 ,941                   3 , 

Madison     7,105                   1, 

Monroe 4?>?31                 28' 

Montgomery     5 , 561                    1 . 

Nassau    . . " 487 

New  York ' 4     

Niagara     61,786                29,011 

Oneida   5,885                   1,447 

Onondaga    25,932                   8,593 

Ontario    36,394                 28,374 

Orange     7 , 863                   3 , 635 

Orleans    14,682                    8,979 

Oswego 3,508       *             3,461 

Otsego    4,021                   1,037 

Putnam     2, 147                       50.> 

Queens   75                         82 

Rensselaer     9 , 528                    3 , 681 

Richmond    63                          44 

Rockland   3,398                    1 .5<H5 

St.  Lawrence    989                        1.14 

Saratoga    13, 187                   2,866 

Schenectady    6 , 368                   2 , 004 

Schoharie    6, 186                   1 ,280 

Schuyler    6,525                   3,705 

Seneca    27,063                   8,952 

Steuben    15,412                   3,802 

Suffolk    2,657 

Sullivan    1 ,730 

Tioga   7,279                  2,031 

Tompkins    10,847                   3,700 

Ulster    11,005                  6,353 


MARKETING  THE  CHEKUY  1157 

County  Trees  Bushels 

Warren    2,578  389 

Washington    7 , 626  1 , 643 

Wayne     35,385  18,304 

West  chcstcr    2,384  956 

Wyoming 6,134  1,631 

Yates     -. 10,002  4,364 


The  State   673,989  .  271,597 


THE  PLUM  AND  PRUNE 


••  .l.s  (i  domestic  fruit  the  plum  stands  very  high,  not  only  for  dessert,  but 
for  ct>o/.-iii<i  <in<l  cunning.  .1  feir  trees  can  be  croirdcd  into  corners  where  other 
fruit  h-t'cn  iroitld  not  find  room  or  would  become  the  prey  of  insects.  In  city 
nards  the  plum  is  an  ideal  fruit  tree." 

E.    P.    POWELL 

[1159] 


FRENCH   DAMSON 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS 

U.  P.  HEDRIOK 
Horticulturist,   New   York   Agricultural   Experiment   Station,  Geneva,  N.   Y. 

The  following,  in  the  order  named,  are  the  leading  commercial 
varieties  of  plums  in  New  York:  Bradshaw,  including  the  Nia- 
gara which  is  identical,  Reine  Claude,  Italian  Prune,  German 
Prune,  Lombard,  Shropshire  Damson,  Grand  Duke,  Washington, 
and  Gueii.  Two  Japanese  varieties,  Abundance  and  Burbank,  are 
as  widely  distributed  as  any,  but  these  are  seldom  grown  exten- 
sively in  commercial  plantations,  and  their  popularity  is  on  the 
wane.  Varieties  of  native  plums  are  seldom  grown  in  New  York, 
although  now  and  then  they  are  found  in  home  collections  and  in 
a  few  small  commercial  plantations.  Wild  Goose  is  more  often 
planted  than  any  other  native  plum. 

The  fruit  of  the  Japanese  and  native,  plums  is  so  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Domestica,  or  European  type,  for  both  market  and  domestic 
purposes  that  varieties  of  these  are  not  likely  to  take  the  place  of 
European  plums.  Neither  the  Japanese  nor  the  native  plums  can 
be  said,  now,  to  be  on  probation,  for  they  have  been^grown  long 
enough  so  that  both  grower  and  consumer  are  familiar  with  them. 
In  the  case  of  the  Japanese  sorts  at  least,  the  varieties  have  been 
greatly  overpraised  and  they  are  suffering  from  the  reaction.  We 
have,  then,  in  the  following  description,  to  deal  chiefly  with 
varieties  of  the  European,  or  Domestica,  plum. 

ABUNDAft  CE 

Abundance  is  the  best  of  the  Japanese  plums.  Two  assets 
that  have  given  the  variety  its  great  popularity  are  adaptability 
to  a  wide  diversity  of  soils  and  climates  and,  as  its  name  implies, 
an  abundance  of  fruit.  It  bears  heavily  and  yearly.  As  a  market 
plnm,  Abundance  has  several  faults.  It  cannot  be  shipped  well 
and  neither  does  it  keep ;  it  is  much  subject  to  brown  rot  and 
matures  unevenly.  The  fruit  of  this  variety  should  be  picked 
'•(•fore  it  is  quite  ripe,  as  it  develops  its  flavor  best  when  so  picked 
and  the  rot  and  the  dropping  are  thus  avoided  to  some  extent. 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS  1163 

ARCH    DTK]-: 

Arch  I  hike  is  one  of  the  leading  purple  market  plums  in  New 
York.  The  qualities  that  make  for  it  a  high  place  among  com- 
mercial varieties  are:  large  size,  handsome  color,  and  firmness  of 
flesh  and  skin  so  that  it  both  keeps  and  ships  well.  Arch  Duke 
compared  with  Grand  Duke,  which  is  known  by  all  plum  growers, 
is  nearly  as  large,  has  a  thicker  neck,  the  same  color,  a  heavier 
bloom,  higher  quality,  firmer  flesh,  is  stone  free,  and  ripens  earlier. 
This  variety  is  suitable  for  both  home  and  market  use. 

BAVAY 

Havay  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  green  plums.  It  is  unexcelled 
for  dessert,  and  it  retains  its  delicious  flavor  when  cooked,  making 
a  rather  rare  combination  of  a  first-rate  dessert  and  a  first-rate 
culinary  fruit.  It  is  a  good  market  plum  for  it  both  keeps  and 
ships  well.  The  trees  bear  young,  annually,  and  heavfly,  and 
while  not  so  hardy,  so  large,  so  robust,  or  so  long-lived  as  could  be 
wished,  yet  in  these  respects  they  are  superior  to  most  other  green 
plums.  Bavay  is  indispensable  in  home  orchards  and  can  bt 
recommended  for  much  more  general  planting  in  commercial 
plantations. 

BRADSIIAW 

Bradshaw  leads  all  other  plums  in  number  of  trees  in  New  York, 
but  its  great  popularity  is  hardly  justified.  The  trees  grow  slowly 
and  are  tardy  in  coming  in  bearing;  the  fruit  is  not  especially  high 
in  quality,  and  in  many  regions  is  attacked  by  brown  rot  too  freely. 
To  offset  these  faults,  the  trees  are  large  and  well  formed,  bear 
regularly  and  heavily,  are  hardy,  robust,  and  healthy,  and  the 
plums  are  large  and  handsome  and  ship  well.  The  variety,  too,  is 
seldom  badly  attacked  by  San  Jose  scale.  The  value  of  the  crop 
is  greatly  lessened  in  New  York  because  it  ripens  in  the  midst 
of  the  peach  season.  It  should  be  planted  only  for  commercial 
plantations. 

BURBAXK 

Inirhank  is  the  chief  rival  of  Abundance  among  Japanese  plums 
in  Xew  York.  The  fruit  of  Burbank  is  of  better  quality,  is  hand- 
somer, keeps  and  ships  better,  and  is  less  susceptible  to  brown 
rot.  The  fruit  ripens  a  week  later  than  Abundance,  which  in 
most  seasons  is  an  advantage.  The  trees  of  Burbank  are  dis- 


1164 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  380. —  THE  BUBBANK 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS  1165 

tinguished  from  all  other  plums  by  their  low,  spreading  habit,  flat 
top,  and  drooping  branches.  The  wood  is  brittle  —  a  rious  de- 
fect. In  common  with  other  Japanese  sorts,  Burbank  is  less 
troubled  with  curculio  and  black  knot  than  are  the  European 
plums.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  before  fully  mature  if  it  is  to 
be  kept  or  shipped.  The  fruit  of  the  trees  should  always  be 
thinned. 

DIAMOND 

Diamond  is  a  large,  handsome,  well-formed  purple  plum  but  is 
coarse  in  flesh  and  not  at  all  pleasantly  flavored.  The  firm  flesh 
and  tough  skin  of  the  variety  commend  it  as  a  market  plum,  and 
the  trees  are  large  in  size,  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive.  It 
is  planted  largely  for  the  markets  where  it  sells  because  of  its  fine 
appearance. 

DUANE 

Duane  is  a  popular  plum  because  of  its  large  size,  well-turned 
shape,  beautiful  purple  color,  and  firm,  golden  flesh.  Appearance 
however,  is  the  only  asset  of  the  fruit,  for  the  flesh  is  dry,  tough, 
sour,  and  clings  to  the  stone.  It  is  desirable  only  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  trees  excel  in  size,  vigor,  and  productiveness,  and  are 
usually  hardy  and  bear  their  crops  well  distributed.  Duane  is 
generally  found  to  be  a  profitable  market  sort. 

FRENCH 

French  is  the  largest  of  the  Damsons,  so  large,  indeed,  as  to  lead 
to  the  belief  that  it  is  a  hybrid  with  some  Domestica  plum,  the 
size  of  the  trees,  blossoms,  and  foliage  also  leading  to  such  a  sup- 
position. This  excellent  Damson  is  largely  grown  for  the  market 
in  western  New  York.  Good  quality  as  well  as  size  and  appear- 
ance aid  in  selling  the  fruit.  The  fruit  have  but  one  defect  in 
that  the  pit  is  large  for  the  amount  of  flesh.  The  trees  are  hardy, 
l;car  abundantly  and  annually,  and  carry  their  foliage  so  well  that 
fruit  and  wood  usually  ripen  perfectly  even  when  the  trees  are  not 
sprayed.  The  season  is  a  little  later  than  that  of  the  more  com- 
monly grown  Shropshire. 

GERMAN    PRUNE 

German  Prune  is  characterized  by  the  large,  hardy,  vigorous, 
healthy,  productive  trees,  characters  so  marked  that  one  can  say  at 


1166          THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  I^EW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  381. —  THE  GERMAN  PRUNE 


VARIETIES  OF  PLIMS  1167 

once  that  it  is  the  tree  that  gives  this  plum  its  great  value.  The 
fruit  is  excellent  for  all  culinary  purposes  and  especially  so  for 
can  11  ing.  The  chief  objection  to  the  plum  is  that  the  fruits  run 
small.  They  are  also  rather  too  tart  for  dessert  fruits. 


<;KAM> 

Grand  Duke  is  the  favorite  late  shipping  plum  in  New  York. 
Its  great  popularity  is  due  to  its  large  size,  pleasing  shape,  hand- 
some plum-purple  color  and  its  firm  meaty  flesh  that  fits  the  variety 
for  shipping.  The  flavor  is  not  pleasant,  and  the  plum  is  no  more 
than  a  second-rate  dessert  fruit  although  it  is  very  good  in  what- 
ever way  cooked.  The  trees  are  seldom  large  and  vigorous  enough 
to  be  called  first-class  although  usually  hardy  ;  they  come  in  bearing 
slowly  but  bear  regularly  and  abundantly  and  hold  the  crops 
well.  The  'plums  are  usually  free  from  rot  and  remain  in  good 
condition  a  long  time.  Grand  Duke  deserves  its  popularity  as  a 
market  plum  in  riiis  state.  - 

GUEII 

(Jueii  is  one  of  the  standard  plums  of  its  season  in  New  York, 
many  growers  holding  that  it  is  the  best  general  purpose  plum  of 
all  the  Domesticas.  This  popularity  is  due  to  its  being  a  money- 
maker, as  few  would  care  to  grow  it  for  home  consumption.  The 
quality  of  the  fruit  is  poor,  and  it  cannot  be  called  a  particularly 
good-looking  plum,  but  the  variety  bears  early  and  abundantly; 
the  trees  are  large  and  vigorous,  healthy  and  hardy,  and  the  plums 
are  hardly  surpassed  for  shipping,  especially  at  the  time  at  which 
the  crop  comes  on  the  market,  about  midseason,  the  best  shipping 
plums  maturing  a  little  later.  The  fruit  is  frequently  subject  to 
brown  rot.  Its  color  is  a  dark  purple-black  overspread  with  thick 
bloom. 

ITALIAN    PRUNE 

Italian  Prime  is  one  of  the  most  widely  grown  of  all  plums  not 
only  in  New  York  but  the  world  over.  Several  qualities  make  it 
popular.  It  is  finely  flavored  whether  eaten  out  of  hand  or  in 
whatever  way  prepared  for  the  table;  it  keeps  and  ships  well;  it 
is  a  handsome  plum-purple  in  color;  the  trees  are  large,  hardy,  pro- 
ductive, and  well  formed,  and  bear  regularly.  Unfortunately,  the 
trees  are  capricious  as  to  soils  and  climates,  do  not  always  bear 


1168          THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS  1169 

well,  and  are  susceptible  to  diseases  and  suffer  from  dry  or  hot 
weather.  In  locations  to  which  it  is  suited,  however,  this  prune 
must  long  remain  one  of  the  leading  plums. 

LOMBABD 

Of  all  plums,  Ixmibard  adapts  itself  most  widely  to  soils  and 
climates;  the  trees  are  robust,  healthy,  productive,  and  regular  in 
hearing;  their  fruits  are  comparatively  free  from  plum  curculio; 
lastly,  the  plums  are  showy,  and  therefore  readily  salable.  The 
tree  characters  of  Lombard  are  all  good.  The  variety  would  be 
preeminently  the  plum  for  the  millions,  were  it  not  for  a  fatal 
fault  —  it  is  very  poor  in  quality.  Canned,  cooked,  or  spiced  it 
docs  very  well,  but  as  a  dessert  fruit  it  is  all  but  worthless. 
Lombard  is  now  much  used  in  the  canneries  of  New  York  and  is 
also  planted  largely  in  home  orchards  where  only  hardy  plums 
will  stand  the  climate.  In  the  markets  it  is  usually  a  low-priced 
plum. 

MONARCH 

The  nicely  turned  form  and  the  rich  purple  color  of  Monarch 
make  this  a  most  handsome  fruit.  While  the  quality  is  not  of 
the  best,  yet  the  variety  ranks  high  among  the  purple  plums  for 
dessert,  few  plums  of  this  color  being  especially  palatable  to  eat 
out  of  hand.  The  variety  is  not  remarkable  for  any  of  its  tree 
characters  yet  averages  well  with  other  plums  and,  with  those  of 
the  fruit,  make  a  variety  above  the  average  and  give  it  a  place 
among  the  best  sorts  for  New  York. 

POND 

Pond  is  preeminent  among  plums  for  its  large  size.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished also  by  its  form  and  its  color,  both  being  pleasing  as 
well  as  distinctive.  At  one  time  Pond  was  very  largely  grown 
in  -\ew  York,  but  the  fruits  are  not  so  perfect  grown  here  as  on 
the-  Pacific  Coast,  and  the  trees  are  not  regular  in  bearing.  The 
eye  is  pleased  with  the  Pond,  but  the  palate  is  sadly  disappointed ; 
at  its  best  it  is  not  even  second-rate.  The  fruits,  however,  ship 
aii'l  keep  well,  and  it  is  the  leading  red  plum  found  in  our  markets. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  its  culture  ought  to  be  recom- 
mended on  a  large  scale  in  New  York  since  it  comes  in  such  quan- 
tities from  the  Pacific  Coast. 


bitj 


1170 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY   i.\   XEW  YORK   STATE 


YAKIKTIKS  OK  PLTMS  1171 

QUACKENBOSS 

Although  not  a  leading  variety,  Quackenboss  is  prominent 
when  making  a  list  of  the  commercial  plums  of  New  York.  To 
a  high  degree  its  fruits  possess  characters  that  make  a  good 
market  plum;  they  are  of  large  size,  of  handsome  plum-purple 
color;  the  flesh  is  tender  and  juicy  with  a  sweet,  pleasant  flavor, 
making  it  one  of  the  good  purple  plums.  The  tree  is  large, 
vigorous,  and  hurdy,  with  a  round,  spreading  top.  The  variety 
dues  not  have  the  reputation  of  beinii  fruitful  and  fails  chiefly 
as  a  commercial  sort  for  this  reason.  It  is  a  late-maturing  plum 
and  comes  on  the  market  at  a  time  when  this  fruit  is  wanted  for 
home  canning,  the  demand  for  this  purpose  helping  greatly  in  its 
sale. 

REIJNE-   CLAUDE 

For  the  qualities  that  gratify  the  sense  of  taste  —  richness  of 
flavor,  consistency  in  texture  of  flesh,  abundance  of  juice,  and 
pleasant  aroma  —  Reine  Claude  is  unsurpassed.  The  fruits  are 
not  remarkably  handsome,  but  when  they  are  grown  on  thrifty 
trees,  the  crop  thinned,  foliage  and  fruit  kept  free  from  pests, 
the  plums  are  often  beautiful  in  size,  form,  and  color.  The  trees 
are  of  only  moderate  size  in  the  orchard,  but  although  small  they 
are  productive  and  bear  regularly,  their  chief  defect  being  sus- 
ceptibility to  sun  scald,  whereby  the  bark  on  the  tree  is  killed. 
Heine  Claude  is  still  one  of  the  most  profitable  plums  grown  in 
Xew  York  —  probably  the  most  profitable  green  variety  —  and' 
both  in  commercial  and  home  plantations  deserves  a  place  in  the 
plum  orchard. 

YELLOW  E(;<; 

Yellow  Egg  is  the  largest  and  the  handsomest  of  the  yellow 
plums  and  is  well  worth  consideration  by  either  the  amateur  or 
ihe  commercial  fruit  grower  in  New  York.  At  best,  however,  it 
is  tit  only  for  cooking  and  is  none  too  good  for  culinary  purposes. 
The  trees  are  very  satisfactory  on  all  but  light  soils.  If  the 
quality  were  only  a  little  better  we  should  heartily  recommend  it 
as  a  yellow  plum  for  home  and  for  commercial  markets  in  this 
state.* 


*See  "  Plums  of  New  York,"  by  Professor  Hedrick.    Published  by  State  Agr. 
Kxp.  Sta.,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

7 


CULTURAL    METHODS    AND    PRUNING    FOR    PLUMS 

AND    PRUNES 


GEORGE  H.  HOWE 

Assistant  Horticulturist,  Xew  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Geneva,  X.  Y. 

LOCATIOX 

Plums  and  prunes,  like  all  other  fruits, 
thrive  best  in  localities  geologically  and  cli- 
matically adapted  to  their  growth.  In  gen- 
eral, however,  the  location  of  plum  orchards 
is  rather  elastic  and  admits  of  a  wide  range 
of  conditions.  Regions  in  Xew  York  most 
suited  to  the  culture  of  plums  are  the  ele- 
vated and  sloping  lands  bordering  the  Great 
Lakes,  the  Central  Lakes  of  western  Xew 
York  and  the  Hudson  River  Valley.  Be- 
sides the  localities  named,  there  are  many 

others  about  the  waterways  of  the  state  and  also  upon  the  elevated 
plateaus  of  the  western  interior  and  upon  the  slopes  of  the  eastern 
mountain  ranges.  In  almost  a"ny  section  of  the  state  suited  to 
general  farm  crops,  where  the  seasons  are  not  severe  and  where 
late  spring  frosts  are  infrequent,  plums  may  be  grown. 


SOILS 

Plums,   perhaps  more  than  any  other  fruit  unless  it  be  the 
apple,  will  succeed  on  a  great  diversity  of  soils.     Good  drainage 
seems  to  be  the  prime  requisite  for  the  success  of  plum  cultur 
When  the  European  sorts  and  all  the  various  American  speci< 
are  considered,  each  having  wide  diversities  of  soil  adaptati< 
it  is  readily  seen  that  a  selection  of  varieties  to  cover  a  broa< 
range  of  soils  is  possible.     This  being  so,  some  varieties  of  plui 
can  be  grown  on  almost  any  soil  not  entirely  prohibitive  of  pL 
growth. 

The  Domesticas  and  Insititias,  the  two  best  widely  cultival 
species   in   Xew   York,   grow   best   on   rather  heavy   clay 
They  will  thrive  on  lighter  soils,  but  the  choicest  fruit  usually 

[1172] 


(  i  LTURAL  METHODS,  PRUNING  FOR  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES     1173 

comes  from  the  large  productive  orchards  grown  on  heavy  soil. 
Heavy  clay  loams  are  not  necessarily  cold  and  wet;  they  may  and 
should  be  well  drained  and  comparatively  warm.  The  Japanese 
plums,  almost  as  widely  grown  in  New  York  as  the  Domesticas, 
seem  to  succeed  well  011  light  soils.  A  light,  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam  suits  them  best,  although  they  will  thrive  on  soils  contain- 
ing more  sand  or  clay  tluin  normal  ideal  types.  The  American 
plums  require  much  the  same  soil  as  that  adapted  to  the 
Domesticas.  A  rich  heavy  loam  composed  of  rather  stiff  clay 
is  most  suitable,  but  soils  in  which  moderate  amounts  of  sand  pre- 
vail do  not  interfere  with  a  thrifty  growth  in  favorable  climates. 
The  llortulana  and  Munsoniana  plums,  while  not  fastidious  as 
to  soils,  do  best  on  comparatively  light  types  of  soil  such  as  those 
on  which  the  Trifloras  flourish. 

EXPOSURES 

The  slope  of  the  land  for  plum  orchards  in  general  is  not  of 
greatest  importance.  All  conditions  being  equal,  a  southeastern 
exposure  is  best.  Only  cold,  backward  soils  require  a  south- 
western slope.  Where  late  spring  frosts  prevail,  a  northern  ex- 
posure is  most  suitable  to  retard  blooming  time.  The  Japanese 
varieties,  being  particularly  early  bloomers,  require  more  or  less 
consideration  in  this  respect.  With  most  other  species,  the 
direction  of  the  slope  makes  but  little  difference,  but  the  greatest 
success  is  attained  where  there  is  enough  slope  for  air  and  water 
irainage. 

DRAINAGE 

The  more  improved  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  the 
more  quickly  do  plum  trees,  like  other  plants,  respond.  The 
rather  stiff  clay  loams  already  mentioned  must  not  be  heavy  an'd 
damp,  but  well  drained,  to  admit  of  effective  plum  culture.  Some 
plums  will  stand  rather  more  water  than  any  other  tree-fruits,  but 
such  a  notion  should  not  be  relied  upon  too  far  when  the  question 
of  drainage  arises.  The  specific  purpose  of  underdrainage  is  to 
make  the  soil  warmer  and  drier  during  Avet  weather,  and  cooler 
and  moistor  during1  drouth.  Well-drained  soils  are  also  con- 
ductive to  greater  ease  of  cutivation,  and  the  combination  of 
these  two  factors  strongly  influences  the  adaptability- of  availablo 
plant  food. 


1174  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  384.- 


BURBANK  UNPRUXED,  SHOWING  THE  RANK  SPRAWLING  GROWTH 
OF  THE  TRIFLORAS 


PLANTIXG 

It  is  the  general  custom  in  New  York  to  set  plum  trees  f 
twelve  to  twenty  feet  apart.  The  space  given  the  trees  seems 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  type  of  the  soil  and  the  variety  to 
set,  though  very  often  the  custom  in  the  locality  is  followed. 
Strong  growing  varieties,  such  as  the  Domes-ticas,  require  more 
space  than  others,  and  it  is  the  rule  of  plum  growers  to  give  m 
room  to  the  trees  than  formerly.  In  mixed  plantations  where 
modern  methods  of  culture  are  practiced,  a  distance  of  twenty  or 
even  twenty-five  feet  apart  each  way  is  not  excessive.  Dwarf 
varieties  thrive  well  when  closely  planted,  but  strong,  vigorous 
growing  kinds  require  the  greater  distance.  Occasionally,  in- 
stead of  planting  trees  an  equal  distance  apart  each  way,  growers 
prefer  to  place  the  trees  at  a  distance  of  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in 


r     Kj^f 

•ed. 

,ore 

- 


CULTURAL  METHODS,  PurM\<;   FOK  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES     1175 


rows  forty  or  fifty  feet  apart  and  grow  some  other  crop  between. 
This  custom,  however,  has  never  found  widespread  favor.  Mixed 
planting  for  cross-pollination  has  demanded  but  little  attention 
in  this  state.  Most  commercial  orchards  consist  of  Domesticas, 
ami  this  species  under  ordinary  orchard  conditions  seem  to  be 
self-fertile. 


Fie.   385.— BURBANK   PRUNED,  WITH   THE   EXCESS  GROWTH  REMOVED  BY 

HEADING-IN 

The  relative  advantages  of  fall  and  spring  planting  are  often 
discussed.  Very  much  depends  on  the  locality,  season,  condi- 
tion of  the  trees,  and  the  soil.  Trees  whose  wood  is  thoroughly 
hardened  and  ripened  might  be  set  in  the  fall  in  soil  which  is 
well  prepared,  but  the  practice  cannot  be  recommended.  As  a 
rule,  it  would  be  much  better  to  store  the  trees  in  a  suitable  cellar 
through  the  winter  and  plant  in  the  spring.  Of  course,  fall 
planting  sometimes  has  the  advantage  of  enabling  the  grower  to 


1176  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

get  the  orchard  started  at  a  season  when  the  rush  of  work  is 
lighter  than  in  the  spring.  Nevertheless,  but  few  species  of 
plums  can  often  be  set  in  the  fall  without  danger  of  considerable 
loss. 

In  this  region  it  is  common  practice  to  plant  plum  trees  two 
years  from  the  bud.  Occasionally  three-year-old  trees,  if  slow- 
growing  sorts,  are  used.  Trees  of  the  Japanese  varieties  are  fre- 
quently planted  at  a  year  from  the  bud.  Such  young  stock  can 
be  handled  and  shipped  cheaply,  but  it  is  not  often  to  be  recom- 
mended. Some  growers,  however,  prefer  this  young  stock,  n( 
only  because  it  is  cheaper,  but  because  it  is  easier  to  set  thj 
are  older  trees. 

CULTIVATION 

Plum  orchards,  like  those  of  all  other  tree-fruits,  should  be 
tilled.  Horticulturists  and  growers  are  agreed  upon  this  prac- 
tice. Tillage  usually  commences  with  plowing  in  the  spring,  fol- 
lowed by  cultivation  during  the  summer  until  the  first  or  the 
middle  of  August,  at  which  time  a  cover  crop  of  clover,  oats,  or 
barley  is  sown.  Plowing  in  the  spring  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work  with  advantage.  It 
should  be  sufficiently  deep  to  insure  a  good  heavy  mulch  when 
cultivation  commences.  Plums  and  prunes  seem  to  need  more 
water  than  do  other  tree-fruits,  often  thriving  luxuriantly  on 
rather  moist  land.  Cultivation  is  necessary  to  conserve  this 
moisture. 

Plum  orchards  growing  in  sod  seldom  prove  successful,  and  it 
is  commonly  stated  that  brown  rot  is  more  serious  under  such 
conditions.  In  tilled  orchards,  much  of  the  mummied  fruit 
which  carries  the  fungus  through  the  winter  is  buried  by  the 
plowing  and  does  not  come  to  life.  The  summer  tillage  is  im- 
portant. Disking  following  the  plowing  is  frequently  practi< 
especially  if  the  soil  is  heavy  and  lumpy.  During  the  summ< 
however,  a  spring-toothed  harrow  is  the  most  successful  t( 
Cultivation  should  not  be  too  deep,  but  should  be  thorough.  Tl 
orchard  in  which  abundant  moisture  prevails  is  the  one  having  tl 
best  mulch. 


CULTURAL  METHODS,  PRUNING  FOR  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES     1177 


:- 


1178  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

». 

COVER    CROPS 

The  value  of  cover  crops  in  orchards  is  very  generally  recog- 
nized by  plum  growers.  They  protect  the  trees  from  cold  by 
holding  the  snow  around  the  trunks  and  keeping  the  soil  from 
washing  —  a  £reat  advantage  in  hillside  orchards.  When  turned 
under,  these  cover  crops  add  humus  to  the  soil,  together  with 
nitrogen,  if  of  a  leguminous  nature,  and  change  the  physical 
character  of  the  soil.  Prolonged  cultivation  in  the  fall  fails  to 
allow  the  trees  to  mature  the  season's  growth.  Such  a  conditioi 
is  avoided  by  the  use  of  cover  crops. 

There  is  still  another  feature  regarding  the  use  of  cover  croj 
which  is  often  overlooked.      Orchards  in  which  they  are1  regularly 
grown  require  less  fertilizer  than  those  in  which  no  such  crop  i; 
grown.      Leguminous  crops   are  not   entirely   necessary  to  brin^ 
about  such  a  result.     By  the  simple  modification  of  the  physic 
character  of  the  soil,  the  availability  of  plant  food  is  greatly  i] 
creased.     Besides,  the  plants  of  the  cover  crops  gather  food  froi 
the  soil  and  air,  and  this  in  turn  is  assimilated  by  the  trees.    The 
most  satisfactory  cover  crop  depends  upon  the  locality  and  the 
character   of   the    soil.      For   light   soils,    cowpeas    and    crimson 
clover  are  good.     Mammoth  clover,  peas,  rye,  oats,  or  barley  are 
best  adapted  to  heavier  soils.     Heavy  seeding  is  to  be  preferred 
to  light,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  will  establish  but  a  scant  cover, 
which  is  little  better  than  none  at  all. 

FERTILIZERS 

The  ideas  governing  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  plum  orchards  are 
very  diverse.  No  definite  principles  have  ever  been  laid  down, 
and  the  results  obtained  have  always  been  obscure.  Too  often, 
fertilizer  has  been  applied  to  soils  not  requiring  it,  or  at  most 
in  small  amounts.  It  is  unquestionably  true  that  much  has  been 
wasted,  even  though  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  plums  and  prun 
require  rich  soils.  In  many  orchards  on  heavy  soil,  good  tilla 
and  the  use  of  cover  crops  obviates  much  of  the  use  of  fertili 
Plum  trees  grow  during  a  long  season,  their  roots  penetrate 
deeply  and  spread  widely,  their  leaves  transpire  much  water 
and  hence  they  thrive  well  on  diluted  solutions  of  plant  f< 
Most  of  the  plum  crop  is  water,  and  it  therefore  requires  f< 


CULTURAL  METHODS,  Pur  MM;   FOR  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES     1179 


FIG.  387. —  BAVAY  UNPRUNED,  SHOWING  THE  VIGOROUS  GROWTH  MADE  BY 

THE  DOMESTICAS 


1180  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

growth  an  abundance  of  moisture  rather  than  increased  quantities 
of  food.  To  be  sure,  some  fertilizer  is  frequently  needed,  but  it 
should  be  applied  with  care  and  intelligence  to  avoid  waste. 
Fruit  growers  are  coming  more  and  more  to  believe  that  it  pays  to 
experiment  carefully  before  applying  fertilizer  to  their  trees. 

PRUNING 

Generally  speaking,  plum  trees  do  not  require  so  much  prun- 
ing as  apple  trees.  In  fact,  a  new  notion  prevails  among  many 
horticulturists  to  prune  all  fruit  trees  as  little  as  possible.  Most 
of  the  Domestica  plums  naturally  form  fairly  good  heads,  and 
only  occasional  branches  need  to  be  removed  to  prevent  the  tops 
from  becoming  too  thick.  The  native  sorts  and  many  of  the 
Americanas  form  such  dense,  thorny  heads  that,  unless  some 
pruning  is  given,  picking  the  fruit  would  be  nearly  impossible. 
It  is  common  experience,  however,  that,  no  matter  how  well  such 
species  are  pruned,  they  still  remain  scraggly,  crooked,  and  un- 
gainly. Heading-in  would  make  their  tops  so  thick  as  to  be  prac- 
tically impenetrable. 

Rank,  sprawling  growers,  such  as  Burbank,  need  severe  heading- 
in  each  year.  All  of  the  Trifloras  require  more  pruning  than  do 
the  European  sorts,  since  most  of  the  fruit  is  borne  on  the  preced- 
ing season's  growth  and  the  bearing  wood  should  be  kept  near  the 
trunk.  In  the  commercial  orchards  of  the  state  it  is  the  practice 
to  form  the  heads  of  the  Trifloras  by  removing  the  leader  and 
leaving  a  vase-formed  head.  After  this  form  is  established  subse- 
quent pruning  is  light,  since  it  consists  of  removing  only  in- 
jured and  surplus  branches  and  cutting  back  long,  slender  growths. 
In  the  case  of  the  Domesticas  and  Insititias,  a  central  trunk  is 
left  with  three  or  four  main  branches.  Future  pruning  consists 
merely  of  thinning  out  crowded  branches  and  removing  injured 
ones.  Trees  making  an  excessive  growth,  however,  should  be  cut 
back.  It  has  long  been  the  custom  to  cut  severely  the  rank  grow- 
ing varieties,  such  as  those  of  the  Triflora  species,  but  the  advisa- 
bility of  this  practice  is  doubtful,  as  the  more  such  plums  are 
pruned  the  more  they  will  need  priming  in  the  years  to  follow, 
might  be  better  to  decrease  the  food  supply  and  prune  but  little, 
although  on  rich  soils  the  trees  would  become  unmanageable  unless 
some  pruning  was  given  year  by  year. 


CULTUKAL  .METHODS,  PRUNING  FOR  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES     1181 


FIG.    388. —  BAY  AY    PRUNED,    SHOWING    THE    CENTRAL    LEADER    WITH    THE 
BRANCHES  Cur  BACK 

The  system  of  pruning  is  really  a  matter  of  local  and  personal 
practice,  and  no  definite  rule  can  determine  it.  Many  growers 
contend  that  the  more  severely  plum  trees  are  pruned  and 
headed-in,  the  more  easily  are  they  cared  for.  Spraying  is  easier 
and  the  fruit  is  picked  with  less  effort.  A  greater  number  of  trees 
c;m  he  handled  on  an  acre.  Under  such  treatment,  however,  the 
thrift  of  the  trees  often  seems  to  be  impaired,  and  in  some  cases 
after  a  few  years  smaller  crops  are  realized. 

The  formation  of  a  suitable  head  on  young  trees  is  a  matter  of 
much  importance.  The  surest  way  of  success  is  to  select  only 


1182  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

clean,  strong  two-year-old  trees  with  good  roots,  and  to  plant 
these  with  care  so  that  they  make  a  vigorous,  healthy  growth  dur- 
ing the  first  few  years.  In  the  past,  plum  trees  have  been  headed 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground,  but  the  present  tendency  is  to 
head  them  lower.  Xo  difficulty  in  tilling  should  be  experienced, 
even  if  the  trees  are  headed  low. 

Pruning  should  be  done  when  the  trees  are  dormant.  It  is  us- 
ually preferable  to  wait  until  the  coldest  weather  is  past  to  make 
allowance  for  possible  winter  injury.  The  pruning  operation 
should  be  governed  by  the  same  principles  and  practical  judgment 
that  constitute  the  basis  for  all  successful  pruning.  Large 
wounds  should  at  all  times  be  avoided  if  possible.  As  such  wounds 
rarely  heal,  they  exude  considerable  gum,  which  is  injurious  to 
the  health  of  the  tree.  They  also  furnish  various  fungi  a  means 
of  access  to  the  tree  tissues. 


THE  COMMON  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  PLUM 
F.  H.  LATHROP 

Assistant    Entomologist,    New    York    Agricultural    Experiment    Station, 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 


In  the  production  of  fruit  of  standard 
quality,  the  grower  cannot  afford  to  ignore 
the  depredations  of  the  insect  enemies  of  his 
crop.  This  is  not  less  true  of  the  plum  than 
it  is  of  other  fruits,  and  if  the  grower  hopes 
to  conduct  his  orchard  operations  success- 
fully and  economically,  he  should  familiar- 
ize himself  with  the  appearance  and  habits 
and  the  means  of  control  of  the  common 
injurious  insects  of  this  fruit.  For  the  sake 
of  convenience,  the  species  discussed  in  this 

paper  may  be  grouped  as  follows:  insects  attacking  the  fruit,  plum 
curculio,  plum  gouger ;  insects  encrusting  the  bark,  San  Jose  scale, 
K  urn  pen  n  fruit-tree  scale,  Putnam's  scale,  European  fruit  Lecan- 
ium ;  insects  attacking  the  leaves  and  stems,  plum  plant  louse,  hop 
plant  louse,  mealy  plum  louse,  rusty-brown  plum  aphis;  insects 
attacking  the  trunk  and  limbs,  fruit-tree  bark  beetle,  lesser  peach- 
tree  borer,  American  plum  borer. 


INSECTS  ATTACKING   THE  FRUIT 

The  Plum  Curculio 

Plum  curculio,  Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst,  is  a  species 
native  to  America,  feeding  on  wild  plum  and  hawthorn,  and  one 
of  the  most  serious  pests  of  plums  in  New  York.  It  also  attacks 
prunes,  peaches,  cherries,  and  other  stone  fruit. 

The  injury  to  plums  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  larvae  in 
the  fruit  by  the  adults  for  the  purpose  of  egg  deposition  and  for 
feeding.  Thp  injured  fruit  which  often  ripens  prematurely  and 
falls  to  the  ground,  will  usually  be  found,  on  examination,  to  bear 

egg  and  feeding  punctures  and  to  be  wormy. 

[1183] 


1184 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  389. — 
YOUNG  PLUM 
SHOWING  INJURY 
BY  CURCULIO.  (e) 
EGG  PUNCTURE; 
(/)  FEEDIN 
PUNCTURE 


The  adult  is  a  rough-bodied  snout  beetle  about  one-fifth  inch 
long,  of  a  brownish  color  mottled  with  gray  and  black.  About  the 
time  the  buds  open  in  spring,  these  beetles  emerge  from  their 
winter  quarters.  They  begin  feeding  as  soon  as 
the  fruit  has  set,  making  small  round  holes 
through  the  skin  and  eating  the  pulp.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  just  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  plum,  in  characteristic,  crescent-shaped 
punctures.  The  small,  grublike  larvae  that  soon 
emerge  from  the  eggs  burrow  into  the  fruit,  and 
within  two  or  three  weeks  become  full-grown, 
when  they  leave  the  fruit  and  enter  the  ground 
to  pupate.  The  adults  that  emerge  about  four 
weeks  later,  feed  until  fall  and  hibernate  in 
debris  in  the  orchard  or  in  adjacent  woodlands. 

Control.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  has 
been  found  effective  in  holding  this  insect  in 
check.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
just  after  the  petals  fall,  and  the  second  a  week 
or  ten  days  later,  using  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fift; 
gallons  of  water.  Some  producers  use  the  arsenate  in  the  sam 
proportion  with  bordeaux  mixture,  2 — 2 — 50,  or  self -boiled  lim 
sulphur  wash,  8 — 8 — 50,  thus  making  a  combined  insecticide  an 
fungicide.  Bordeaux  mixture  should  not  be  used  on  Japanes 
varieties,  however.  For  many  years  jarring  was  extensively  e: 
ployed,  but  now  it  is  seldom  used  on  a  commercial  scale.  Th 
pupae,  which  are  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  surface  of  th 
ground,  may  be  destroyed  by  shallow  cultivation  at  frequent  inte 
vals  from  July  10  until  August  10.  The  eradication  of  win 
quarters  will  reduce  the  number  of  beetles  in  spring. 

The  Plum  Gouger 

Plum  gouger,  Coccotorus  scutellaris  Le  Conte,  is  a  serious 
of  plums  and  allied  fruits  in  the  north  central  states  and  th< 
western  Mississippi  Valley.  The  injury  to  the  fruit  may  easil; 
be  mistaken  for  work  of  the  curculio,  but  the  adult  is  readil; 
distinguished  by  the  yellow  head,  thorax,  and  legs,  and  the  dun 
colored  wins  covers. 


THE  COMMON  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  PLUM          1185 

In  early  spring  the  eggb  are  deposited  just  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  fruit,  and  the  grubs  burrow  into  the  pit,  where  they  feed 
a  nd  finally  pupate.  The  beetles  emerge  in  the  fall  and  feed  for  a 
short  period  before  hibernating. 

Control.  Spraying  as  recommended  for  curculio  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory  means  of  control  for  this  pest.  Jarring  has 
also  been  advised. 

INSECTS  ENCRUSTING   THE   BARK 

San  Jose  Scale 

San  Jose  scale,  Aspidiotus  pemicio- 
Sllti  Comstock,  is  a  destructive  pest 
found  most  commonly  on  the  smaller 
limbs  and  branches  of  the  tree,  but  all 
parts  may  become  infested,  including 
the  trunks  of  small  trees  and  the  leaves 
and  fruit  where  infestation  is  heavy. 
The  affected  bark  presents  a  dull  gray- 

390. SAN      JOSE        ish  granular  appearance,  due  to  a  thin 

ashy  encrustation,  which  when  scraped 

away  reveals  the  minute  yellow  bodies  of  insects.  Close  examina- 
tion shows  a  single  scale  tc  consist  of  a  circular  shield  of  grayish 
or  blackish  color,  with  a  tiny  protuberance  in  the  centre  —  the 
"  nipple,"  as  it  is  called,  about  which  are  a  number  of  concentric 
circles.  By  raising  this  shield  with  a  pin,  the  tiny,  yellow,  and 
almost  shapeless  body  of  the  insect  may  be  seen. 

In  Xow  York  during  the  latter  part  of  May  the  insects  after 
having  passed  the  winter  are  mature,  and  about  a  month  later  the 
females  begin  to  give  birth  to  living  young.  These  small  insects, 
which  are  provided  with  eyes  and  legs,  move  about  over  the  bark 
for  a  short  time,  but  finally  settle  down,  and  do  not  move  again. 
After  a  few  days  when  the  insects  have  formed  protecting  scales, 
the  eyes  and  legs  are  soon  lost.  In  this  latitude  there  are  several 
generations  a  year. 

Control  San  Jose  scale  .may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with 
lime-sulphur  wash  in  spring  when  the  trees  are  dormant,  In  case 
of  severe  infestation,  a  similar  application  may  be  made  in  the  late 


1186  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

autumn.  The  lime  sulphur  wash  may  be  made  at  home,*  using 
the  40 — 80 — 50  formula ;  or  the  commercial  concentrated  solution 
(testing  32  degrees  Baume*)  may  be  obtained  and  diluted  with 
eight  or  nine  parts  of  water.  In  applying  the  wash  care  should  be 
taken  to  cover  even  the  smallest  twigs.  Some  growers  use  miscible 
oil  instead  of  lime-sulphur.  If  this  is  used,  it  should  be  applied 
only  in  spring  when  the  buds  begin  to  swell. 

The  European  Fruit-tree  Scale 

While  this  pest,  Aspidiotus  ostreceformis  Curtis,  is  much  less 
important  economically,  it  is  nevertheless  rather  similar  in  haltits 
and  appearance  to  the  San  Jose  scale,  from  which  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  orange  color  of  the  nipple,  located  in  A.  ostrece- 
formis toward  one  side  of  the  scale.  Injury  is  done  to  plum,  apri- 
cot, currant,  and  soft  maple. 

Control.      This  scale  may  bo  controlled  in  the  same  manner 
recommended  for  the  San  Jose  scale. 

Putnam's  Scale 

This  scale,  Aspidiotus  ancylus  Putnam,  is  practically  indistin- 
guishable from  the  European  fruit-tree  scale  except  by  microscopic 
structures.  Plums  are  sometimes  badly  encrusted  by  this  scal< 
but  it  is  a  much  less  serious  pest  than  is  San  Jose  scale. 

Control.     When  trees  are  sprayed  for  San  Jose  scale,  this  pei- 
will  not  become  seriously  abundant. 

The  European  Fruit  Lecanium 

This  species,  Lecanium  corni  Bouche,  has  occurred  in  this  state 
in  destructive  abundance  and  is  injurious  to  a  large  number  oi 
plants,  including  many  of  the  stone  and  pome  fruits,  currant,  black- 
berry, mulberry,  and  pecan. 

The  young  scales  pass  the  winter  on  the  small  branches,  and  wi1 
the  approach  of  spring  they  make  rapid  growth,  maturing  in  earl; 
spring.  The  mature  female  is  a  large,  brown,  soft-bodied  seal 
about  one-eighth  inch  long,  closely  resembling  a  halved  pea  al 
tached  to  the  bark.  The  male  is  whitish  and  smaller.  The  f< 
males  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs,  and  the  insects  hatching  from 


See  Bulletins  329  and  330,  X.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 


THE  COMMON  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  PLUM         1187 

them  migrate  to  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl  and  turn  yellow. 
The  scales  produce  honeydew,  which  accumulates  on  the  tree  and 
becomes  infested  with  a  black  fungus,  thus  giving  the  tree  an  un- 
sightly sooty  appearance. 

Control.  Lime-sulphur  wash  as  used  for  the  San  Jose  scale 
should  keep  this  species  in  check.  Kerosene  emulsion  and  mis- 
cible  oils  applied  in  spring  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell  have  also 
been  recommended. 

INSECTS  ATTACKING   THE   LEAVES  AND  STEMS 

The  Plum  Plant  Louse 

The  eggs  of  the  plant  louse,  Myzus  mahaleb  Fonscolombe,  are 
deposited  in  fall  on  the  terminal  twigs  of  plum  trees.  In  spring, 
light  green  wingless  aphids  hatch  from  these  eggs  and  make  their 
way  to  the  terminal  growth,  where  they  breed  until  late  spring. 
At  this  time  winged  migrants  are  produced,  and  the  lice  leave  the 
plum  to  breed  during  the  summer  on  various  plants.  With  the 
approach  of  fall  they  return  to  the  plum. 

The  Hop  Plant  Louse 

This  species,  Phorodon  huniuli  Schrank,  is  very  similar  in 
habits  and  appearance  to  the  preceding  aphis,  from  which  it  may 
be  distinguished  by  minute  structural  differences.  The  lice  breed 
on  the  plum  during  fall  and  spring,  migrating  to  hops  during  the 
su miner.  Although  this  is  a  serious  pest  of  hop  vines,  it  is  seldom 
abundant  enough  on  the  plum  to  be  seriously  injurious. 

The  Mealy  Plum  Louse 

This  aphis,  Hycilopterus  arundinis  Fabricius,  is  of  a  pale  green 
color  marked  by  three  longitudinal  dark  stripes,  and  covered  by  a 
whitish  mealy  powder.  The  lice  spend  the  summer  on  various 
grasses,  breeding  on  the  plum  during  fall  and  spring. 

The  Rusty-brown  Plum  Aphis 

This  reddish-brown  plant  louse,  Aphis  setarim  Thomas,  is  especi- 
ally injurious  in  the  South,  and  it  sometimes  becomes  a  serious 
pest  in  our  own  section.  The  life  history  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
preceding  species. 


1188 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


Control  of  Aphids 

All  of  the  above  species  of  plant  lice  are  so'  nearly  alike  in  habits 
that  they  may  be  controlled  on  plum  by  the  same  methods.  The 
aphids  may  be  killed  by  thorough  applications  of  a  spray  composed 
of  two  pounds  of  soap  and  one-fourth  pint  of  tobacco  extract  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water.  Kerosene  emulsion  or  whale-oil  soap  ap- 
plied at  summer  strength  may  also  be  used. 


INSECTS   ATTACKING    THE    TRUNK   AND   LIMBS 

The  Fruit-tree  Baric  Beetle 

Although  dead  or  weakened  tree 
limbs  are  most  often  affected  by  the 
bark  beetle,  Scolytus  rugulosus  Ratze- 
burg,  injury  is  frequently  done  to 
healthy  wood  of  many  kinds  of  fruit 
trees.  The  attack  is  indicated  by  the 
presence  of  numerous  small  holes,  re- 
sembling shot  holes,  in  the  bark  of  the 
tree.  If  the  bark  is  removed,  the  "  shot 
holes  "  will  be  found  to  connect  with 
numerous  tortuous  channels  between 
the  bark  and  the  sapwood. 

The  winter  is  passed  by  the  larvae 
beneath  the  bark.  These  mature  in 
spring,  and  the  beetles,  boring  holes 
through  the  bark,  escape.  Later,  the 
females  bore  into  the  tree  in  order  to 
deposit  eggs  in  tunnels  under  the  bark. 

Control.  In  early  spring,  before  the  beetles  have  emerged,  a 
dead  trees  and  branches,  which  serve  as  breeding  quarters  for  th 
pest,  should  be  removed  and  the  prunings  burned.  Inducin 
rapid  growth  in  spring  will  enable  the  trees  to  withstand  the  a 
tack.  Whitewash,  to  each  pail  of  which  one-fourth  pound  of  sa 
has  been  added,  tends  to  repel  the  beetles  when  applied  to  the  tru 
and  larger  branches. 


Till 


FIG.  391. —  WORK  OF 
FRUIT  -TREE  BAR 
BEETLE  ox  PLUM  Lm 
A  PORTION  OF  BARK  H^ 
BEEX  .REMOVED  TO  SHO 
THE  BURROWS 


THE  (  VMM  ON    INSKCT  KXKMIKS  OF  TIIK  PLUM          1189 


The  Ij(>,wr  I^'nch-t  i-cc  llorer 

The  larvae  of  the  peach-tree 
borer,  Sesia  pictipes  Grote  and 
Robinson,  burrow  just  beneath 
the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  limbs 
of  various  fruit  trees,  chief  of 
which  are  peach,  plum,  and  cherry. 
During  the  summer  the  larvae  that 

FIG.  392.—  ADULT  LESSER  PEACH-    have    passed    the    winter,    mature 
TREE  BORER  ,,  .  ,,        ., 

and  transform  into  fragile,  clear- 

winged  moths.  The  attacks  occur  most  frequently  on  old  trees 
with  rough  bark,  especially  near  wounds,  and  are  marked  by  an 
exudation  of  gum  from  the  affected  parts. 

(  'ontrol.  The  attacks  may  be  considerably  lessened  by  keeping 
the  trees  in  good  condition,  free  of  loose  bark,  and  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, safe  from  mechanical  injury.  In  case  of  severe  infestation, 
the  larvae  may  be  dug  out  and  the  wounds  treated  with  a  protective 
wash.  Repellent  washes  seem  to  have  proved  of  little  value. 

The  American  Plum  Borer 

The  presence  of  this  pest,  Enzophera  semifuneralis  Walker,  is 
evidenced  by  the  accumulation  of  frass  which  the  larvae  throw  from 
their  burrows  beneath  the  bark.  The  bark  above  the  burrows  is 
usually  killed,  and  sometimes  the  tree  is  entirely  girdled.  The 
winter  is  passed  by  the  pupae  in  small,  white,  silken  cocoons  under 
flakes  of  loose  bark  or  in  the  frass  at  the  entrance  to  the  burrows. 
The  adult  is  a  small,  grayish,  inconspicuous  moth. 

Control.  If  the  trees  are  kept  in  good  condition,  as  recom- 
mended for  the  two  preceding  species,  this  insect  should  not  prove 
to  l>e  a  serious  pest.  Scraping  away  the  rough  bark  during  the 
winter  will  kill  many  of  the  pupae.  The  larvae  may  be  dug  out  by 
hand,  in  case  infestation  becomes  heavy. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM 

LEX  R.  HESLER 
Assistant  Professor  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

BLACK    KNOT 

The  black  knot,   which   is  caused  I 
Plowrightia   morbosa    (Schw.)    Sacc., 
one  of  the  most  common  diseases  of  th( 
plum.    It  receives  its  name  from  the  cha] 
acteristic  black  excrescences  or  galls  on  th( 
branches.      The  young   swellings   are   at 
first  covered  by  the  bark.     As  the  knots 
increase  in  size,  the  bark  ruptures  and  th< 
swollen  surface  becomes  olivaceous  ;  event- 
ually,   however,    the    galls    become    coal- 
black,  hard,  and  brittle.     The  knots  ar< 

usually  confined  to  one  side  of  the  twig  or  limb,  so  that  death  o1 
the  affected  portion  does  not  always  immediately  follow  attack. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  more  severe  cases  the  whole  circumferenc 
of  the  branch  is  involved,  and  the  food  supply  intended  for  th( 
more  distant  parts  is  cut  off.  In  such  cases  whole  trees  are  finall1 
killed  (Fig.  393). 

The  disease  originated  in  America  and  is  peculiar  to  our  native 
wild  species  of  plums  and  cherries,  although  it  is  frequently  d( 
structive  to  certain  cultivated  varieties  of  plums  and  sour  cherries 
The  knots  are  due  to  the  work  of  a  fungus,  although  for  a 
time  it  was  believed  that  insects  were  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

The  olivaceous  ruptured  surface  of  the  knot  is  at  first  cover( 
with  the  summer  spores,  or  conidia,  which  are  borne  on  short  U] 
right  threads  and  are  capable  of  causing  infection  during  the  sai 
season  in  which  they  are  formed.      This  infection  occurs  froi 
May  until  the  latter  half  of  the  summer.     In  August  the  knottec 
portion  of  the  branch  turns  black  and  becomes  brittle ;  the  surfai 
is  then  covered  with  very  fine,  pimply  protuberances,  each  of  whiel 
has  an  opening  at  its  apex.     These  openings  lead  to  flask-sha] 

[11903 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM 


1191 


FID.  393. —  BLACK  KNOT  ON  PLUM 


1192  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

cavities  of  the  winter  fruiting-bodies,  which  are  known  as  peri- 
thecia.  The  perithecia  contain  numerous  club-shaped  sacs,  each 
of  which  in  turn  bears  eight  winter  spores,  or  ascospores.  By 
March  or  April  these  spores  are  matured,  and  at  this  time,  or 
possibly  a  little  later,  they  are  shot  during  rainy  periods  from 
the  sacs  through  the  openings  mentioned  above.  The  air  currents 
carry  these  spores  to  other  limbs,  and  apparently  they  gain  en- 
trance on  actively  growing  tissue  or  through  wounds.  The  young 
knots  very  soon  begin  to  appear  as  previously  described. 

About  1850,  turpentine,  kerosene,  and  other  washes  were  ap- 
plied to  the  knots,  but  forty  years  later  k'  the  heroic  use  of  th< 
knife  "  was  the  recognized  remedy.  The  eradication  of  the  knots 
has  been  the  subject  of  legal  enactments  in  several  states,  including 
New  York.* 

In  removing  the  knots,  it  should  be  remembered,  first,  that  th( 
summer   spores   are   produced   abundantly   from   May  until   Ia1 
in  the  summer;  secondly,  that  the  winter  spores  develop  late  ii 
winter  or  early  spring  and  are  discharged  with  the  warm  Apri 
rains.     Therefore,  the  knots  should  be  removed  before  either  ty] 
of  spores  are  produced;  in  other  words,  diseased  limbs  should 
eradicated  in  the  fall  or  early  winter.     Watch  closely  for  th< 
appearance  of  any  young  knots  in  the  spring;   these,   if  foun< 
should  be  removed  at  once.     Spraying  alone  for  this  disease 
not  effective. 

BROWN  ROT 

The  brown  rot,  caused  by  Scleratinia  cinerea,  is  next  in  ordei 
of  seriousness  among  the  diseases  of  the  plum.  It  may  be  vei 
destructive  one  year  and  of  relatively  slight  importance  the  follow- 
ing season.  In  years  of  full  fruitage,  accompanied  by  damp,  wai 
weather,  the  disease  is  most  troublesome.  But  the  weather  is  IK 
the  direct  cause  of  the  rot;  a  fungus  is  directly  responsible,  the 
weather  only  offering  the  proper  conditions  for  the  developmenl 
of  the  fungus. 

The  fruits  are  the  common  seat  of  the  injury,  although  th< 
blossoms  and  twigs  are  quite  susceptible  (figs.  394  and  395).  The 
fruit  is  attacked  as  it  approaches  maturity,  turning  it  brown,  soft 
and  worthless.  At  first  the  rotted  areas  are  small,  circular,  an< 
brownish.  These  rapidly  enlarge  until  they  involve  the  entii 


*  Section  304  of  the  Agricultural  Law. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM 


1193 


FIG.   394. —  BROWN   ROT   ON   PLUM   FRUITS 


1194 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK   STATE 


fruit,  which  at  the  same  time  shrinks  slightly.  As  decay  advances, 
small  tufts  of  grayish  threads  of  the  fungus  appear  near  the  center 
of  the  original  spots.  Later  the  whole  fruit  is  dotted  with  these 
tufts  (Fig.  394.)  From  these  tufts  the  summer  spores  are  devel- 
oped, which  are  distributed  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  to  other 
fruits.  These  spores  live  over  until  the  following  spring,  when 
they  become  a  source  of  trouble  again  by  producing  infection. 


FIG.    395. —  BROWN    ROT    CANKERS    ON 
PLUM  TWIGS 

If  the  fruit  hangs  in  clusters,  adjacent  plums  decay  at  the  points 
of  contact,  and  the  fungus  thus  spreads  from  fruit  to  fruit  until 
the  whole  cluster  is  lost.  Fruit  may  also  suffer  after  it  is  picked ; 
plums  that  were  apparently  sound  at  picking  may  be  rott 
seriously  in  transportation,  so  that  when  they  reach  the  mark 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM  1195 

they  are  in  poor  condition  and  of  inferior  quality,  or  may  be  an 
entire  loss. 

Diseased  plums  may  fall  or  they  may  cling  to  the  tree;  in  either 
case  they  shrivel,  due  to  the  loss  of  water,  and  become  the 
••  mummy  "  so  familiar  to  orchardists.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  summer  spores  may  live  over  winter.  In  this  connection  it 
should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  fungus  also  passes  the 
winter  in  the  mummies  just  mentioned.  From  the  mummies, 
which  cling  to  the  tree  throughout  the  winter,  there  is  developed, 
in  the  spring,  a  new  crop  of  the  summer  spores.  These  infect 
the  blossoms  and  young  fruits.  From  the  fallen  mummies  in 
the  spring,  there  arise  cup-shaped,  stalked  bodies.  These  organs 
furnish  another  kind  of  spores,  known  as  ascospores,  for  the  spring 
infection  of  blossoms. 

The  diseased  blossoms  become  brownish  and  often  are  confused 
with  frost  effects.  The  causal  fungus  may  spread  from  infected 
blossoms  to  adjacent  twigs  through  the  flower  stalks.  Twigs  and 
limbs  may  also  become  diseased  from  the  infected  fruit,  the  fungus 
growing  directly  through  the  fruit  stalk  into  these  organs.  The 
twigs  and  limbs  are  also  infected  through  wounds  in  the  bark. 

The  control  of  plum  brown  rot,  based  on  the  foregoing  state- 
ments, proceeds  as  follows :  The  fruit  should  be  protected  by  spray- 
ing with  lime-sulphur  solution,  1-50.  Since  moisture  is  highly 
favorable  to  the  disease,  the  tops  of  the  trees  should  be  so  primed 
us  to  admit  sunshine,  the  heat  of  which  evaporates  the  moisture. 
The  fruits  should  be  thinned  so  that  no  two  touch,  for,  it  will  be 
remembered,  the  fungus  is  able  to  travel  from  one  plum  to  another 
if  the  fruit  hang  in  clusters  or  touch  one  another.  The  extermina- 
tion of  mummies,  in  which  the  fungus  hibernates,  is  doubtless 
of  some  value;  this  method  alone  fails  in  that  the  complete 
destruction  of  all  the  mummies  is  never  accomplished. 

LEAF  SPOT 

This  disease  is  caused  by  Coccomyces  prunophorce  Higgins. 
Many  of  the  stone  fruits  suffer  from  fungi  which  produce  a  shot- 
hole  trouble.  In  such  cases  the  leaf  is  killed  in  more  or  less 
circular  areas,  which  dry  up  and  fall  out,  leaving  a  shot-hole 


1106  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

appearance  (Fig.  396).     In  severe  cases  of  leaf  spot,  the  folia* 
very  frequently  turns  yellow;  hence  it  is  called  "  yellow  leaf.' 
It  is  clear,  then,  that  yellow  leaf  and  leaf  spot  are  names  for  tm 
same  disease.     Infections  on  the  Japanese  varieties  of  plum  ai 
chiefly  of  a  shot-hole  nature,  but  there  is  practically  no  defoliatioi 
as  in  the  case  of  the  European  plum  varieties. 

This  disease  is  not  confined  to  the  plum,  but  may  serious! 
affect  sweet  and  sour  cherries,  both  wild  and  cultivated.     It  as 
sumes  great  importance  in  the  nursery  and  is  destructive  to  trc 
of  plum  and  cherry  orchards. 


FIG.  396. —  LEAF  SPOT  OF    PLUM.  NOTE  THE  GHOT-HOLE  APPEARANCE 

The  leaves  are  the  chief  organs  attacked;  however,  the  frui 
and  fruit  stalks  are  not  exempt.      The  spots  appear  at  first 
slightly  discolored  areas,  usually  not  exceeding  an  eighth  of 
inch  in  diameter,  and  more  commonly  about  half  that  size.     Aft( 
a  week  or  ten  days,  the  spots  become  very  definite  in  outline, 
assume  a   reddish-brown   color.      In   wet   weather,    small   white 
velvety  pustules  are  abserved  on  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  leav< 
opposite  the  discolored  spots.     These  pustules  occasionally  omn 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM 


1197 


FIG.  397. —  PLUM  POCKETS,  OR  PLUM  BLADDER  ON  THE  FRUIT 


1198  THE  FEUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YOBK  STATE 

on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf.  Finally,  the  foliage  may  tnrn 
yellow  and  fall  prematurely. 

It  has  been  determined  that  the  fungus  hibernates  in  the  old 
leaves  on  the  ground.  In  the  spring,  when  the  trees  are  develop- 
ing the  first  new  leaves,  quantities  of  spores  (in  this  case,  asco- 
spores)  are  discharged  from  specialized  organs  in  the  old,  fallen 
leaves.  These  spores  are  blown  to  the  new  foliage,,  where,  after 
a  week  or  ten  days,  they  produce  spots.  Very  soon,  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaf,  the  whitish  pustules  appear  as  previously  de- 
scribed ;  these  pustules  are  masses  of  summer  spores  produced  by 
the  fungus  in  the  leaf.  The  spores  spread  the  fungus  through- 
out the  summer,  resulting  in  a  wide  distribution  of  the  disease. 

Bordeaux  mixture  at  5—5—50  or  lime-sulphur  solution  1—50  may 
be  used  for  the  control  of  this  disease,  although  the  former  often 
causes  burning  of  plum  foliage.  Since  infections  begin  with  the 
appearance  of  the  first  leaves  in  the  spring,  the  first  spraying 
should  be  made  about  ten  days  after  the  blossoms  fall.  Destruc- 
tion of  cH  leaves,  which  harbor  the  fungus  from  the  previous  year, 
is  a  measure  in  itself  unreliable,  but,  of  course,  is  good  practice 
supplemented  by  spraying. 

PLUM  POCKETS 

Plum  pockets,  or  plum  bladder,  cause  by  Exoascus  Pruni 
Fuckel,  is  a  name  which  arises  from  the  peculiar  pocketlike  or 
bloated  appearance  of  affected  plums  (Fig.  397).  The  trouble  is 
caused  by  a  fungus  closely  allied  to  that  causing  peach  leaf  curl. 
The  disease  is  not  very  prevalent  and  most  injurious  when  the 
spring  is  col'd  and  damp.  It  is  therefore  erroneously  believed  to 
be  due  to  cold,  humid  weather;  but,  as  stated  above,  a  fungus  is 
the  direct  cause. 

The  fungus  attacks  the  plum  at  ian  early  stage  of  growth,  either 
while  yet  a  fruit  bud  or  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall.     The  in- 
vaded tissue  of  the  incipient  fruit  is  stimulated  by  the  fungus 
doubtless  by  some  slightly  poisonous  secretion,  and  the  result  i; 
the  production  of  an  abundant  spongy  growth  until  the  whole 
form  of  the  plum  is  enlarged  and  distorted.     In  reality,  the  pul] 
and  stone  of  the  fruit  are  replaced  by  a  thin,  soft,  inflated  shell 
and  in  place  of  the  seed  there  exists  merely  a  hollow  cavity.     Th< 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PLUM  1199 

diseased  fruits  may  be  distinguished  1'wni  the  healthy  fruit  by 
their  pale  yellow  color.  Later,  the  affected  plums  become  coated 
over  with  a  tine  powdery  substance;  this  consists  of  the  spores  of 
the  causal  fungus.  Finally,  the  diseased  fruits  turn  black  and 
fall.  The  further  history  and  function  of  the  spores  mentioned 
above  is  not  well  known. 

The  disease  is  local  in  nature.  It  may  attack  a  single  tree, 
every  plum  on  the  tree  bearing  pockets,  while  surrounding 
trees  remain  unaffected.  A  tree  once  affected  continues  to  bear 
pockets  in  succeeding  years,  if  weather  conditions  .are  favorable. 
Some  claim  that  this  is  evidence  that  the  fungus  hibernates  in 
the  twigs  and  that  infection  in  the  spring  is  accomplished  by  the 
resumption  of  growth  of  the  fungus. 

Control  measures  consist  in  spraying  before  the  buds  open  with 
bordeaux  mixture  4-4-50,  or  lime-sulphur  1-15. 


MARKETING  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES 

GEORGE  H.  HOWE 

Assistant  Horticulturist.  Xe\v  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Geneva,  X.  Y. 

One  of  the  leading  problems  in  marketing  plums  and  prunes 
is  to  have  good  fruit.  Given  such  fruit,  a  market  can  usually  be 
developed  for  almost  any  quantity.  In  Xew  York  there  can  prob- 
ably be  grown  a  larger  number  of  varieties  of  plums  than  of 
almost  any  other  cultivated  fruit,  and  the  range  of  flavor,  texture, 
color,  size,  and  form  is  also  greater.  With  the  great  variability 
of  this  fruit  and  the  adaptation  of  the  different  varieties  to  diverse 
climatic  and  soil  conditions,  the  problems  of  marketing  should 
not  be  so  complex  as  they  are  at  the  present  time.  One  great 
difficulty  with  the  plum  industry  today  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
hampered  by  the  marketing  systems  now  in  vogue. 

PICKING 

In  New  York  and  in  most  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  plums 
are  harvested  and  placed  on  the  market  just  before,  they  reach 
an  edible  condition.  Farther  west,  however,  they  are  picked 
much  greener.  The  need  of  early  picking  in  this  state  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  fruit  may  be  handled  and  shipped  more  readily, 
and  clanger  of  the  crop  being  destroyed  by  the  brown-rot  fungus 
is  lessened.  If  the  weather  is  warm  and  muggy  it  is  extremely 
important  that  the  fruit  be  picked  early.  *  A  delay  of  a  few  hours 
wrill  frequently  cause  severe  loss  from  brown  rot.  Many  of  the 
Japanese  plums  may  well  be  picked  from  a  week  to  ten  days  be- 
fore fully  mature;  even  then  they  will  develop  a  good  color  and 
flavor.  The  Domesticas,  on  the  other  hand,  need  not  be  picked 
quite  so  green.  Plums  used  for  jelly  or  conserves  should 
picked  as  soon  as  they  are  full-grown  and  long  before  they  ai 
thoroughly  ripe.  The  fruit  should  always  be  perfectly  dry  wh< 
harvested ;  otherwise  it  is  almost  sure  to  decay  before  reaching 
market. 

[12001 


MARKETING  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES  1201 

Divers  utensils  arc  used  in  connection  with  picking.  Ladders, 
baskets,  and  the  manner  of  conveyance  from  orchard  to  packing 
house,  all  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  the  individual.  Of 
onirsc  plums  are  always  hand  picked,  and  good  growers  exercise 
great  care  so  as  not  to  bruise  them  or  destroy  the  delicate  bloom. 
I' n fortunately,  however,  many  pickers  are  careless  and  do  not  ob- 
serve these  important  details. 

PACKING 

In  New  York  the  plum  crop  as  a  rule  is  sent  to  market  in  six-, 
right-,  and  ten-pound  grape  baskets,  the  smallest  of  these  re- 
ceptacles being  at  present  preferred.  Four-pound  baskets  are 
occasionally  used.  The  fruit  should  always  be  conveyed  from  the 
orchard  to  the  packing  house  for  preparation  for  market.  The 
grower  who  ships  his  plums  just  as  they  are  picked,  or  who  packs 
in  the  field,  always  receives  inferior  returns.  In  the  packing 
house,  preparations  for  shipping  can  be  carefully  made,  inasmuch 
as  the  package  and  its  appearance  advertise  the  product. 
Western-grown  plums  coming  to  this  state  are  usually  wrapped 
singly  in  tissue  paper  as  an  aid  toward  safe  shipment,  as  well  as 
to  increase  their  attractiveness.  Such  a  custom  has  rarely  been 
followed  in  Xew  York,  but  it  would  seem  that  choice  specimens 
might  profitably  be  handled  in  this  manner  for  fancy  trade. 
Sorting,  grading,  facing,  and  marketing  of  the  packages  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  the  judgment  of  the  individual,  and  no  defi- 
nite rules  can  be  laid  down.  Every  new  idea  for  an  attractive 
package  should  always  be  given  careful  consideration. 

STORING 

Most  plums  are  seldom  stored  longer  than  a  week  in  common 
storage,  and  the  limit  in  cold  storage  for  the  majority  of  varieties 
i-  three  or  four  weeks.  With  proper  precaution,  many  of  the 
late  plums  and  some  of  the  prunes  could  be  stored  for  a  much 
longer  term.  Domestica  and  Insititia  varieties  at  the  Geneva  Ex- 
periment Station  have  frequently  been  kept  a  month  or  longer  in 
common  storage  without  unusual  precaution.  There  is  a  vast 
difference  in  keeping  qualities  of  plums,  since  certain  varieties 
can  now  be  found  which  can  be  stored  for  some  time.  Already 


1202  THE  FEUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

nurserymen  have  offered  to  growers  new  sorts  which  are  recom- 
mended for  keeping  a  long  time  after  picking.  This  leads  to  the 
belief  that  there  is  an  opportunity  for  the  breeding  of  late  keep- 
ing varieties. 

PROBLEMS    OF   MARKETING 

Marketing  plums  like  the  marketing  of  all  other  commodities 
is  beset  with  perplexities.  It  is  a  business  quite  by  itself  and 
it  is  difficult  to  recommend  any  set  rules.  A  business  man  en- 
deavors to  follow  the  lines  of  least  competition;  the  same  is  true 
of  the  plum  grower.  A  good  local  market  without  doubt  offers 
the  producer  the  best  means  of  disposing  of  his  fruit,  since  the 
fruit  reaches  the  consumer  direct  and  eliminates  the  middlemen. 
With  plums,  as  with  all  fruits,  improper  distribution  is  the 
greatest  barrier  against  good  prices.  Not  until  the  middlemen 
are  eliminated  and  the  grower  can  deal  directly  with  the  con- 
sumer, either  through  cooperative  associations  or  similar  or- 
ganizations, will  fruit  distribution  be  controlled  and  satisfactory 
prices  established.  The  chief  drawback  in  handling  the  plum 
crop  at  the  present  time  is  that  there  are  too  many  men  and  too 
much  machinery  involved  to  do  the  work  cheaply.  Seldom,  too, 
can  the  fruit  be  handled  on  a  large  enough  scale  to  be  profitabh 
due  to  a  lack  of  capital  by  the  grower  or  local  buyer.  Mai 
growers,  fearing  western  competition,  have  ceased  planting  plm 
orchards  —  in  fact  have  been  removing  their  trees.  It  woul 
sometimes  seem  that  such  fears  are  groundless,  for,  with  pro] 
facilities  and  methods  of  marketing,  eastern-grown  fruit  ought 
take  foremost  rank  and  bring  the  best  returns.  Many  westei 
growers  are  at  present  turning  to  manufactured  products  as 
outlet  for  their  plums.  Here  in  New  York,  however,  there 
but  little  outlook  at  present  for  the  turning  of  the  surplus  ci 
into  by-products.  Practically  the  sole  outlet  for  the  plum  in  t] 
east  is  in  selling  for  canning,  since  this  region  cannot  compc 
with  the  west  in  the  making  of  prunes,  and  European  by-produ( 
are  not  in  demand  in  America.  There  are  a  number  of  products, 
such  as  preserves,  jellies,  plum  butter,  marmalades,  and  the  like, 
which  could  undoubtedly  be  profitably  marketed,  thus  offering  a 
means  of  utilizing  the  surplus  fruit. 


MARKETING  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES  1203 

VARIETIES 

A  word  only  may  be  added  concerning  varieties.  Tri  maki  up- 
market plantings  but  comparatively  few  varieties  are  chosen,  and 
the  appearance  and  shipping  qualities  of  these  are  supremely 
important.  Always  certain  varieties  of  these  are  the  best  sellers 
in  certain  markets.  For  instance,  Damsons  are  required  in  some 
places,  while  in  other  localities  plums  of  the  Green  Gage  type 
are  in  demand.  As  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  text,  under  the 
discussion  of  varieties,  Bradshaw,  Green  (lage,  Lombard,  Shrop- 
shire, and  French  Damson  are  perhaps  the  leading  commercial 
sorts  for  the  several  plum-growing  districts  in  the  state.  The 
selection  of  varieties  is  after  all  a  personal  matter  and  recom- 
mendations are  hard  to  make.  Local  and  geographical  adaption, 
personal  preferences  of  the  grower,  and  the  intrinsic  qualities  of 
the  variety,  all  enter  into  the  problem  of  varietal  selection  for 
market  purposes. 
8 


1204 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XKW   YORK   STATE 


TABLE  SHOWING  NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS  OF  PLUMS 
AND  PRUNES  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES 

(Taken  from  U.   S.  Census,  1010) 


County 

Trees 

Bushels 

Albany     

42,230 

13,842 

Alleganv    

10,420 

1,883 

Broome    

8,901 

3,524 

Cattaraugus     

8,973 

1,464 

Cayuga    

14,913 

6,708 

Chautauqua    

15,848 

9,578 

Chemung     

5,375 

2,529 

Chenango    

5,414 

2,044 

Clinton    

5,111 

84 

Columbia     

17,433 

7,784 

Cortland    

5,641 

1,883 

Delaware     '.  

8,992 

3,105 

Dutchess     

14,690 

10,731 

Erie        

25,301 

10,580 

Essex     

2,591 

495 

Franklin  

511 

24 

Fulton  

907 

240 

Genesee  

13,525 

8,916 

Greene  

19,242 

9,018 

Hamilton  

51 

12 

Herkimer  

6,157 

3,853 

Jefferson    

2,856 

857 

Kin^s 

Lewis    

560 

119 

Livingston    

7.943 

3,839 

Madison  

9,4(52 

4,903 

"Monroe    

92,986 

75,259 

Montgomery    

9,001 

4,411 

Nassau  

216 

72 

New  York 

Niagara    

180,801 

148,792 

Oneida   

11,686 

6,177 

Onondaga  

20,226 

11,066 

Ontario    

52,603 

32,761 

Orange  

11,479 

4,617 

Orleans    

26,313 

25,971 

Oswego    

12,529 

8,335 

Otsego  

10,569 

3,525 

Putnam  

2,353 

1,046 

Queens  .  .       

3      .  . 

Rensselaer     

13,935 

5,163 

Richmond  .  .              ....          »  .  .  . 

28      .  . 

Rockland     

3,931 


1,438 

St.  Lawrence   

1  ,  155 

135 

Saratoga    

11,039 

3,257 

Schenectady  

7,204 

2.337 

Schoharie    

17,484 

6,466 

Schuyler   

18,301 

12,148 

Seneca   

33,190 

26,895 

Steuben    

20,258 

7,747 

Suffolk  

2,423 

Sullivan  

2,811 

Tioga  

5,507 

2,253 

Tompkins  

9,908 

4,438 

Ulster    

24,138 

10,990 

MARKETING  PI.UMS  AND  PRUNES  1205 

TABLE  SHOWING  NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS  OF  PLUMS 

AND  PRUNES  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES  —  Concluded 

County                                                                             Trees  Bushels 

Warren    2,578  1,161 

Washington    7,842  2,910 

Wayne    21,976  15,711 

Westchester    2,194  1,350 

Wyoming 9,462  3,849 

Yates 19,841  13,702 


The  State   919,017  553,522 


THE  QUINCE 


They  call  /or  dates  and  quinces  in  the  pastry." 

ROMEO  AND  JULIET  IV,   4:2. 

[1207] 


QUINCES 
IT.  L.  BROWN,  WATEEPORT,  ORLEANS  COUNTY,  N.  Y. 

The  first  considerations  in  growing  and 
cultivating  the  quince  should  be  soil  and 
location.  Both  are  very  important.  Select 
a  high,  well-drained  clay  loam  with  especi- 
ally good  air  drainage,  for  the  quince  is  very 
tender  in  bud  and  Vossom,  hence  very  sus- 
ceptible to  late  spring  frosts. 

VARIETIES 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  the 
quince,  but  as  a  commercial  proposition  we 
consider   but   one   worth   mentioning  —  the   Orange. 

DISTANCE    IN    PLANTING 

Almost  all  quince  trees  have  been  planted  too  close.  From 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet  is  recommended  by  nearly  all  nurserymen, 
but  we  consider  eighteen  by  twenty,  or  twenty  by  twenty,  to  be 
most  suitable. 

CULTIVATION 

We  prefer  clean  cultivation,  but  are  frequently  forced  to  the 
sod  mulch  owing  to  the  great  susceptibility  of  the  quince  to  fire 
blight.  This  blight  takes  two  forms  —  that  of  the  twig  and  that 
affecting  the  body.  Sometimes  it  will  confine  itself  to  the  twigs 
exclusively;  then  again  it  will  strike  to  the  big  wood  and  de- 
stroy the  entire  tree  in  a  short  time. 

FERTILIZATION 

There  is  nothing  better  for  the  quince  than  annual  dressings 
of  stable  manure,  but  in  the  absence,  of  this  we  use  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  and  nitrate  of  soda  as  follows:  Phosphoric  acid, 
from  500  to  700  pounds  per  acre  every  year  on  mature  trees ; 
nitrate  of  soda,  from  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre  if  the  trees  appear 
to  need  it;  muriate  of  potash  in  the  same  amounts  and  under  the 

same  conditions  as  nitrate. 

[12091 


1210  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  }SEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  393.— EXAMINING  THE  FRUIT 


QUINCES 


1211 


l'i<;.  399. —  Ax   INDIVIDUAL  TREE  IN  ORCHARD  OF  H.  L.  BROWN,  WATERPORT, 

N  Y. 

PRUNING 

In  pruning  we  prefer  the  single  stem  method.  We  thin  out  the 
top  and  head  back  for  the  first  two  or  three  years;  then  discon- 
tinue to  head  back,  just  keeping  a  good,  well-thinned  head. 


INSECT  ENEMIES 

The  borer  and  curculio  are  the  two  most  injurious  enemies  of 
the  quince.  Dig  out  the  borers.  For  the  curculio  spray  with 
arseiiate  of  load,  four  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water;  or  jar 
tlio  trees,  catching  the  insects  in  a  canvas  or  other  suitable  re- 
ceptacle. 

The  quince  Lecanium,  a  scalelike  insect,  is  sometimes  trouble- 
some ;  this  we  treat  in  the  dormant  state  with  oil  emulsion,  one 
gallon  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water. 

DISEASES 

Leaf  spot  and  fruit  spot  are  controlled  by  either  a  lime-surphur 
or  a  bordeaux  spray,  of  the  same  strength  as  that  used  for  apples. 


1212  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


1213 


MARKETING 

We  have  tried  both  barrels  and  baskets  for  packing,  but  have 
found  the  barrel  more  satisfactory.  The  demand  for  the  quince 
is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  for  the  apple,  pear,  or  peach. 
since  it  is  used  only  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  never  eaten  out 
of  hand.  If  properly  cooked,  it  is  very  delicious.  As  to  profit, 
the  quince  compares  quite  favorably  with  the  apple. 


1214 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


TABLE  SHOWING  NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  BUSHELS  OF  Qnxc: 
IN  NEW  YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES 

(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 


County 

Trees 

Bushels 

Albany  

510 

603 

Allegany   

85 

10 

Broome  

35 

4 

Cattaraugus     

172 

33 

Cavuga    

1,829 

507 

Chautauqua    

-  2,951 

2,020 

Chemung   .   .  •  

45 

G 

8 

riintrm 

1 

Columbia  

1,180 

278 

Cortland   

42 

13 

Delaware    

45 

24 

Dutchess  

1,242 

382 

Erie    

4,524 

1,229 

"FqqpY 

4 

Franklin  

3 

1 

Fulton 

14      .  . 

Genesee   

4,038 

1,975 

Greene   

;  652 

360 

Herkimer 

(}.    .  . 

Jefferson  

5 

2 

Kings 

Lewis    .                           .    . 

Livingston  

880 

27:1 

Madison  

31 

12 

Monroe  

30,121 

25,842 

Montgomerv  

37 

4 

Nassau    

174 

^.28 

New  York 

Niagara  

58,296 

56,124 

Oneida  

36 

1 

Onondaga  

448 

116 

Ontario  

6,998 

3,289 

Orange  

954 

435 

Orleans  

25,233 

23,125 

Oswego  

557 

77 

Otsego  .  . 

32      . 

Putnam  

.  485 

201 

Queens  

8 

4 

Rensselaer  

297 

70 

Richmond  

.  32 

9 

Rockland  

697 

252 

St.  Lawrence.  .  . 

Saratoga  

118 

9 

Schenectadv  

81 

10 

Schoharie  

91 

11 

Schuyler  

232 

132 

Seneca  

1,391 

554 

Steuben   

257 

59 

Suffolk  

956 

412 

"  Sullivan  

99 

18 

Tioga  

35 

4 

Tompkins  

461 

166 

QUINCES  1215 


County 
Ulster          

Trees 
3,277 

Bushels 
320 

6 

2 

58 

6 

\Vavne                             

14,119 

11,244 

1,178 

479 

\Vvoni  in<r 

1,211 

179 

Yates                                         

2  754 

1  437 

The  State   169, 031  132, 451 


THE  GRAPE 


"7  draw  the  blood  from  out  the  earth; 
I  store  the  sun  for  winter  mirth." 

WILLIAM   MORRIS 

[1217] 


CONCORD 


A  LOOK  BACKWARD  ON  THE  GRAPE 

L.  H.  BAILEY,  LL.D.,  ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

EARLY  LITERATURE 

On  a  shelf  in  my  library  are  some 
fifty  books  printed  in  North  America 
which  are  devoted  to  the  grape,  but 
there  is  no  other  fruit  that  has  any- 
where near  this  number  of  volumes. 
When,  many  years  ago,  1  began  to 
collect  horticultural  books  from  anti- 
quarian  shops   in    all   parts   of  the 
country,  with  no  lists  to  guide  me, 
I   was   struck  by  the  profusion  of 
writings  on  "  the  vine  "  and  began 
to  make  inquiry  as  to  the  reasons  for 
it.     I  found  that  therein  lay  a  most 
interesting  and  devious  history,  and 
one  that  has  much  significance  to  the 
development    of    agricultural    prac- 
tice.    We  think  of  history  as  belonging  to  politics  and  govern- 
ments, to  kings  and  thrones  and  wars,  but  hardly  to  such  common 
practices  as  the  plowing  of  land  and  the  growing  of  grapes;  yet, 
one  does  not  plow,  neither  does  he  plant,  until  he  makes  up  his 
mind  to  do  so,   and  he  makes  up  his  mind  because  there  are 
antecedent  reasons. 

These  grape  books  are  generally  old  —  of  the  middle  of  last 
mtury  and  earlier  —  and  they  impress  one  greatly  with  the  des- 
cription of  European  practice.    Many  of  them  are  books  recording 
le  attempt  to  transfer  Old  World  methods  into  this  new  continent, 
md  to  grow  the  vine  for  the  purpose  of  making  wine ;  for  wine  has 
been  the  destiny  of  the  grape  from  the  time  of  Noah  until  the 
jresent  epoch. 

THE  BRUIT  OF  THE  VINE 

In  this  country  the   apple  was  at   first  grown  purposely  for 
cider;  early  in  last  century,  it  is  recorded,  every  man  in  New 

[12101 


1220  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Hampshire  had  his  orchard  and  every  tenth  man  his  cider  mill, 
and  every  well-to-do  farmer  put  into  his  cellar  yearly  from  twenty 
to  fifty  barrels  of  cider,  which  was  all  drunk  on  the  premises.  In 
1805,  there  were  4,800  barrels  of  cider  made  in  one  town  and  every 
drop  of  it  was  drunk  there.  In  Connecticut,  according  to  Hale, 
every  farmhouse  cellar  wintered  from  thirty  to  fifty  barrels  of 
cider.  I  should  say  to  my  reader  that  these  practices  are  not  evi- 
dences of  desire  for  strong  drink,  but  this  was  considered  to  be 
the  proper  and  best  way  in  which  to  consume  the  fruit ;  the  grape 
was  even  more  prized  for  its  juice,  and  one  of  the  earliest  writers 
on  this  fruit  in  North  America  declares  that  he  undertook  the 
cultivation  of  it  "  for  th&good  of  my  country  and  from  a  principle 
of  love  to  mankind,"  considering  wine  to  be  a  good  corrective 
against  the  "  great  excesses  in  the  use  of  distilled  spirituous 
liquors  "  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  America,  "  which  ruin  their 
constitutions,  and  soon  render  them  unfit  for  the  service  of  God  and 
their  country,  as  well  as  for  that  of  their  own  family  and  friends/' 
I  have  said  this  much  about  the  use  of  the  juices  in  order  that 
my  reader  may  understand  the  point  in  view  in  the  early  attempts 
to  grow  the  vine  in  this  country  of  promise. 

THE  GRAPE  A  FACTOR  IN  MAN?S  DEVELOPMENT 

The  grape  of  history  is  the  wine  grape.  Like  the  dog,  the  ox, 
the  sheep,  the  grains  for  bread,  the  olive,  and  the  apple,  it  has  been 
one  of  the  accompaniments  of  man  from  the  depths  of  the  imme- 
morial past.  It  has  modified  his  course  and  identified  him  with 
the  products  of  the  earth.  In  this  long  companionship,  the  de- 
tails and  the  course  of  which  no  man  knows,  the  vine  has  become 
modified  into  many  forhis,  yielding  its  gracious  products  under 
many  suns  and  in  great  diversity  of  difficult  conditions.  The  dim 
memories  of  unknown  generations  were  associations  with  wine,  the 
product  of  the  vine. 

The  Old  World  civilization  was  transferred  to  the  New  World, 
and  the  vine  came  with  it,  as  came  also  cattle  (albeit  the  native 
bison  was  here,  but  he  has  been  exterminated),  horses,  fowls,  rye, 
barley,  and  wheat.  But,  whereas  these  other  good  products  adapted 
themselves  readily  to  the  new  country,  the  grape  did  not  do  so ;  and 
in  the  full  process  of  time  another  grape  took  the  place  of  the  old, 


A  LOOK  BACKWARD  ox  TIIK  GKAIM-:  1221 

yielding  a  different  fruit  and  being  a  table  grape  rather  than  a 
wine  grape,  although  wine,  is  made  from  it.  Thus  it  comes  that 
my  grape  books  express  the  old  history ;  and  in  the  last  half  cen- 
tury, when  grape  growing  in  eastern  North  America  has  estab- 
lished itself  and  needs  no  explanation  or  justification,  the  books 
written  about  it  have  not  been  many. 

THE  PASSING  OF  THE  WINE  GRAPE 

Let  us  remember,  then,  that  the  grape  of  history  is  pne  thing  — 
Vitis  vinifera,  the  "  wine-bearing  "  vitis  or  grape, —  and  that  it 
was  early  introduced  into  this  country,  and  that  the  grape  of  New 
York  is  another  thing.  The  .earliest  settlers  brought  the  -wine 
grape;  companies  were  formed  to  grow  it.  The  colonial  history 
is  replete  with  mention  of  it.  My  shelf  of  suggestive  books  led 
me  into  this  history  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago ;  I  wrote  it  nearly 
twenty  years  ago  in  my  "  Sketch  of  the  Evolution  of  our  Xative 
Fruits  " ;  and  the  field  has  since  been  further  searched  by  Hedrick 
for  the  admirable  great  work,  "  The  Grapes  of  New  York."  It  is 
not  necessary,  therefore,  to  present  any  of  the  details  here,  but 
only  to  explain  in  a  general  way  how  it  came  that  the  European 
grape  failed  and  perished  in  our  eastern  country  and  how  a  native 
grape,  offshoot  of  the  vine  of  our  woods,  came  to  take  its  place 
unbeknown  even  to  those  who  propagated  it. 

The  very  early  plantings  of  the  grape  of  the  Old  World  were 
many,  and  often  extensive.  As  early  as  1662,  Lord  Baltimore 
planted  300  acres  in  Maryland.  Colonies  of  vine-dressers  specially 
brought  from  Europe  for  the  purpose  were  established  for  the 
furtherance  of  vine  culture.  But  although  wine  was  made  and 
even  sent  to  Europe,  everywhere  a  fatal  and  mysterious  sickness 
finally  overtook  the  vines,  and  they  perished.  This  sickness  was 
thought  to  be  due  to  cold,  to  soil,  to  wrong  exposure,  to  atmos- 
pheric causes,  but  still  the  hope  persisted  that  somewhere  the  safe 
and  ideal  location  would  be  found.  Always  was  the  effort  made 
to  find  the  right  exposure  and  site,  for  somewhere  nature  must 
have  provided  the  delicate  balance  of  conditions  that  would  make 
the  vine  to  thrive. 

This  reminds  us  of  our  recent  notions  that  very  special  places 
must  be  found  if  we  are  to  grow  Spitzenbergs  and  Newtown 


1222  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Pippins,  in  contrast  to  the  time  before  when  we  knew  so  little  about 
the  nature  of  the  diseases  and  deficiencies  that  follow  our  crops. 
The  sickness  of  these  Old  World  grapes  we  now  know  to  have  been 
chiefly  of  two  kinds  —  the  phylloxera  on  the  roots  and  the  mildew 
and  rot  on  the  leaves  and  fruit.  These  diseases  were  unknown  in 
the  old  countries  whence  came  the  vine.  They  are  present  on  the 
wild  vines  of  our  woods  and  shores ;  yet  long  ago  nature  struck  the 
balance,  and  they  do  not  make  much  devastating  headway  against 
these  native  stocks  with  which  the  contest  has  been  waged  in  the 
long  and  termless  processes  of  time,  but  they  attacked  the  new- 
comers with  violence. 

THE  ADVENT  AND  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  TABLE  GRAPE 

Among  all  the  number  of  grapes  that  were  tried  by  many 
patient  and  faithful  experimenters,  one  finally  persisted  and  gave 
promise.  This  was  in  the  collections  of  the  gifted  Peter  Legaux, 
at  Philadelphia,  a  man  of  rare  qualities  and  enthusiasm,  but  who 
died  broken-spirited  because  of  the  failure  of  his  vine-growing 
enterprise.  A  sad  and  yet  a  prophetic  history  will  some  day  be 
written  of  the  men  who  failed  and  were  humiliated  in  the  attempt 
to  grow  the  vine  in  this  western  world. 

This  one  grape  that  best  persisted  was  supposed  to  have  come 
from  the  region  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  in  reality  it  was 
an  offshoot  of  the  wild  native  fox  grape.  How  it  came  or  why, 
we  do  not  know,  but  it  spread  gradually ;  after  a  time  the  Catawba 
found  its  way  into  cultivation  from  the  back  lands  of  the  Caro- 
linas;  the  Isabella  came,  and  American  grape  growing  began  on 
a  new  basis.  By  the  middle  of  the  last  century  these  American 
grapes  had  well  established  themselves  in  parts  of  New  York  State, 
but  new  methods  had  to  be  developed,  markets  were  to  be  found, 
diseases  and  difficulties  with  the  improved  varieties  had  to  be  over- 
come. Men  still  gave  their  lives  to  the  work  of  grape  development, 
but  in  a  new  way  —  men  like  E.  S.  Rogers,  George  Haskell, 
Jacob  Moore,  T.  V.  Munson,  and  others.  Xew  methods  of  training 
must  be  devised,  and  this,  for  its  fulfillment,  awaited  the  per- 
fecting of  means  of  manufacturing  trellis  wire.  In  'California  the 
Old  World  wine  grape  is  grown  to.  perfection,  but  in  this  eastern 
region  we  build  our  enterprise  on  the  ameliorated  offspring  of 
the  grapes  that  grew  wild  in  the  country  when  it  was  discovered. 


A  LOOK  BACKWARD  ON  THE  GRAPH  {'I'l'.j 


FIG.  401. —  THE  CATAWBA 


1224  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

The  sufficient  introduction  to  cultivation  of  the  ("ape  grape, 
known  also  as  the  Alexander,  was  due  very  largely  to  the  heroic 
efforts  of  the  Kentucky  Vineyard  Society,  under  the  leadership  of 
John  James  Dufour.  As  a  lad  in  Switzerland  he  had  conceived 
the  idea  that  America  offered  a  promising  field  in  which  to  engage 
in  wine-making  with  profit.  The  project  of  a  great  vine  commune 
was  talked  over  in  the  family  circle  in  the  old  land,  and  in  March, 
1796,  Dufour  set  off  for  the  Xew  World.  For  his  passage  he  paid 
$50  and  baggage  charges.  On  the  brig  "  Sally  "  he  landed  in 
Philadelphia,  August  12,  having  sailed  June  10.  For  two  or 
three  years  he  visited  all  the  leading  vineyards  in  the  new  country. 
Of  all  the  vines  which  Dufour  saw,  non&  sufficed  u  to  pay  for 
one-half  of  their  attendance,"  save  the  "  vines  planted  in  the 
gardens  of  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  about  a  dozen  plants 
in  the  vineyard  of  Mr.  Legaux."  And  from  these  few  plants  be- 
longing to*  Legaux,  under  Dufour' s  care,  began  the  most  important 
experiment  in  American  grape  culture. 

COMMUNITY   EFFORT  A    CEXTURY  AGO 

Dufour  was  now  ready  to  locate  land  and  to  establish  the  pro- 
posed grape  colony.  He  chose  a  location  in  the  Great  Bend  of 
the  Kentucky  River,  about  twenty-five  miles  from  Lexington  by 
the  present  pikes,  and  thirteen  miles  from  the  present  village  of 
Xicholasville.  The  "  Kentucky  Vineyard  Society  "  appears  to 
have  been  established  under  his  inspiration.  The  association  was 
organized  with  $10,000  capital.  There  were  200  shares  at  $50 
each,  and  forty  shares  were  given  Dufour  as  "  salary  to  conduct 
the  business,  until  it  should  become  productive."  The  full  num- 
ber of  shares  was  not  taken,  and  the  concern  set  out  in  the  spring 
of  1799  with  five  acres  planted  to  thirty-five  varieties,  many  or 
most  of  which  were  secured  from  Legaux. 

The  enterprise  being  now  fully  on  its  feet,  the  remaining  mem- 
bers of  the  Dufour  family  were  ready  to  join.  On  Xew  Year's 
Day,  1801,  the  adventurers  came  together  in  Switzerland,  and 
prepared  to  take  leave  of  home  and  country.  Seventeen  souls  set 
sail  in  early  spring  upon  a  voyage  which  lasted  100  days.  They 
landed  in  Xorfolk  during  May.  In  this  company  were  the  seven 
remaining  Dufours,  Jean  Daniel  Mererod  (who,  either  in  Europe 


A  LOOK  BACKWARD  o.\   i  in.  (JRAIJK 


1225 


122(i  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW  YORK   STATK 

or  America,  married  Antoinette  Dufour),  Francis  Louis  de  Sie- 
•beiithal,  John  Francis  de  Sibenthal  and  Philip  Bettens,  together 
with  women  and  children.  They  crossed  the  Alleghanies  to  Pitts- 
burg  with  wagons,  the  women  and  children  who  could  not  walk 
going  as  freight  at  so  much  a  hundred  pounds.  At  Pittsburg,  the 
colonists  took  boats  011  the  Ohio,  and  set  their  faces  towards  that 
wild  and  rugged  country  which  had  been  so  recently  the  theatre  of 
Daniel  Boone's  adventures.  The  party  arrived  at  the  vineyard, 
July  6,  1801.  There  the  colonists,  fresh  from  the  snug  and  well 
tilled  fields  of  Switzerland,  saw  a  raw  river  bottom,  rolling 
gradually  up  to  rocky  and  wooded  hills,  which  slope  away  to  the 
south  and  southeast,  and  upon  which  the  new  vineyard  was  grow- 
ing. In  the  foreground  was  a  log  cabin.  But  they  wrere  full 
of  hope,  and  fell  to  work  with  much  good  will.  The  brothers 
had  brought  grape  vines  from  home,  and  these,  with  loving  solici- 
tude, were  planted  with  the  vines  which  had  been  procured  by  the 
founder. 

For  years  they  labored,  but  finally  the  ente-rprise  fell  apart; 
later  they  gave  it  up,  and  little  now  remains  to  mark  the  place. 
Undaunted,  a  second  experiment  was  undertaken  by  the  Dufours, 
this  time  on  the  Ohio  at  Vevay,  Indiana.  Congress  passed  an 
act  authorizing  them  to  choose  four  sections  of  land  on  a  credit 
of  twelve  years,  "  to  plant  the  vine  and  make  their  principal  busi- 
ness its  cultivation.77  But  the  vines  in  the  new  place  also  took 
sick  and  would  not  bear;  or  if  they  bore,  the  fruit  rotted  before 
it  was  ready  for  the  harvest.  Only  the  Cape  grape  gave  any 
important  return.  In  May,  1832  or  1833,  a  killing  frost  ruined 
most  of  the  remaining  vineyards;  and  the  Catawba,  which  was 
then  coming  into  prominence,  was  set  in  the  place  of  the  old 
varieties. 

FRUITION 

Twenty  years  ago  I  visited  the  old  place  and  uncovered  much 
of  the  history.  I  was  shown  an  old  stock  that  tradition  said  wa: 
the  sole  remainder  of  the  Cape  grape;  but  its  fruit  was  that  of 
the  Catawba,  showing  that  the  old  kind  has  perished  utterly. 
With  Longworth  at  Cincinnati  and  others  elsewhere,  the  Catawba 
gained  in  popularity;  other  varieties  originated  here  and  there 


A  LOOK  BACKWARD  ON  THE  GRAPE  1227 

until  the  lists  became  attractive;  finally  Kphraim  Bull,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, originated  the  Concord,  and  grape  culture  on  an  Ameri- 
can foundation  was  assured. 

The  history  is  extensive  and  it  can  be  only  suggested  here.  It 
is  replete  with  high  enthusiasm,  courage,  large  enterprises  for  the 
days  in  which  they  were  made  and  even  for  our  day,  with  hopes 
blasted  and  ambitions  deferred.  We  reap  the  results,  securely 
and  confidently  planting  our  vines  and  gathering  their  harvest; 
and  our  thankfulness  is  not  alone  to  the  earth  which  gives  us  of 
its  bounty,  but  to  the  many  hopeful  and  diligent  souls  who  in 
times  long  past  have  contributed  to  our  heritage. 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

I".  P.  HEDRICK 
Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  X    V. 

In  their  wild  state,  grapes  are  adapted  to  a  great  diversity  of 
soils  and  conditions;  under  cultivation,  varieties  are  confined  to 
very  'restricted  regions  and  even  localities.  Thus  a  grape  will 
often  succeed  on  one  shore  of  a  lake  or  river  and  not  on  the  other ; 
on  one  slope  of  a  hill  and  not  011  the  other.  It  is  difficult  to  point 
out  the  determinants  of  grape  adaptabilities;  for  the  most  part 
they  can  be  known  only  by  trial,  since  neither  conditions  of  soil, 
of  climate,  nor  lay  of  the  land  seem  to  determine  with  certainty 
the  adaptability  of  any  variety  to  a  given  locality.  .Many  varie- 
ties reach  perfection  in  one  region  or  locality  but  not  in  another, 
although  the  conditions  may  seem  to  be  very  similar.  Often 
the  influence  of  local  environments  is  so  great  that  a  variety 
grown  in  one  locality  may  not  be  recognized  as  the  same  grape 
when  produced  under  other  conditions. 

What  has  been  said  makes  it  plain  that  in  a  state  as  large  as 
New  York,  and  in  one  with  its  varied  soil  and  climate  conditions, 
a  considerable  number  of  grapes  must  be  grown  if  house  and 
markets  are  to  be  supplied.  The  following  sorts,  discussed  al- 
phabetically, form  the  very  briefest  list  of  grapes  for  this  state. 

BRIGHTOX 

Brighton  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading  amateur  grapes  in  New 
York  and  is  among  the  ten  or  twelve  chief  commercial  sorts  in 
the  state.  Its  good  points  are:  high  quality,  handsome  appear- 
ance, certainty  of  ripening,  being  earlier  than  Concord,  vigorous 
growth,  productiveness,  adaptability  to  various  soils,  and  ability 
to  withstand  fungi.  Brighton  has  two  serious  defects  which  keep 
it  from  ranking  high  commercially :  It  deteriorates  in  quality 
very  quickly  after  maturing,  and  is  self  sterile  to  a  marked  de- 
gree. To  have  it  at  its  best  the  fruit  should  be  thinned.  After 
Catawba  and  Delaware  it  is  probably  more  extensively  grown 

than  is  any  other  red  grape. 

[1228] 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 


Fie.  403. —  THE  BRIGHTON 


1230  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

CATAWBA 

Catawba  is  the  standard  red  grape  in  the  markets.  Of  all 
commercial  grapes  it  is  the  best  keeper,  lasting  until  March  or 
later.  Because  of  its  fine  quality  it  often  brings  a  higher  price 
than  do  other  varieties.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy,  and  pro- 
ductive, but  the  foliage  and  fruit  are  susceptible  to  fungi;  this 
constitutes  the  chief  defect  of  the  variety.  Because  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  very  late  in  ripening,  it  can  be  grown  profitably  in 
New  York  only  in  the  favored  parts  in  the  central  lakes  region  and 
on  the  highlands  surrounding  the  lakes. 

CLI.\T(X\ 

Clinton  is  of  value  because  of  the  vigor,  hardiness,  and  fruit- 
fulness  of  the  vines.  The  vine  is  so  vigorous  that  its  growth  is 
rank.  Because  of  this  and  its  straggling  habit  it  is  very  difficult 
to  keep  under  control,  and  in  most  situations  needs  a  great  deal  of 
room.  The  fruit  is  too  small  and  sour  for  a  dessert  grape;  it  is 
therefore  valuable  only  for  culinary  purposes  and  for  wine. 

CONCORD 

Concord  is  the  most  widely  grown  of  the  grapes  of  this  con- 
tinent. Its  preeminently  meritorious  character  is  that  it  succeeds 
in  a  great  number  of  soils  and  under  great  variations  in  climate. 
The  second  character  which  commends  it  is  its  high  degree  of 
f ruitfulness ;  it  gives  large  crops  year  in  and  year  out.  Added 
to  the  above  points  of  superiority  are  hardiness,  ability  to  with- 
stand diseases  and  insects,  comparative  earliness,  fair  size  of 
bunch  and  berry,  and  attractive  color.  Its  faults  are,  that  the 
quality  is  not  high,  the  skins  and  the  seeds  are  objectionable,  and 
the  grapes  do  not  keep  nor  ship  as  well  as  could  be  desired.  It 
is  safe  to  say  that  in  no  part  of  Xew  York  should  either  home 
or  commercial  plantations  be  set  in  which  Concord  is  not  in- 
cluded. 

DELAWARE 

Delaware  is  the  standard  in  quality  among  grapes.  Added  to 
high  quality  it  withstands  climatic  conditions  to  which  all  but  the 
most  hardy  succumb,  and  is  well  adapted  to  many  soils  and  condi-- 
tions.  After  the  Concord,  possibly,  it  is  the  most  popular  grapo  in 


VARIP:TIES  OF  GIIAPES  1231 

New  York  for  garden,  vineyard,  and  wine  press.  Besides  the 
qualities  named,  Delaware  matures  sufficiently  early  to  make  its 
crops  certain,  is  attractive  in  appearance,  keeps  well  on  the  vine 
and  in  the  package,  and  ships  well.  Its  faults  are:  small  size 
of  the  vine,  slowness  of  growth,  susceptibility  to  mildew,  and  the 
small  size  of  the  berries.  It  succeeds  best  in  deep,  rich,  well- 
drained,  warm  soils,  and  must  have  good  cultivation  and  close 
pruning.  At  least  every  home  vineyard  should  include  the  Dela- 
ware; under  many  conditions  it  will  prove  profitable  in  commer- 
cial plantations. 

DIAMOND 

Diamond  is  surpassed  in  quality  and  beauty  by  no  other  green 
grape.  When  to  its  desirable  fruit  characters  are  added  earliness, 
hardiness,  productiveness,  and  vigor,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  one 
of  the  best  of  the  green  grapes.  For  the  amateur  it  has  few  supe- 
riors. The  chief  drawback  for  the  small  garden  is  that  the  robins 
prefer  it  to  other  varieties  and  greatly  reduce  the  crop.  It  can  be 
grown  in  any  part  of  Xew  York  where  the  Concord  succeeds. 

DIANA 

Diana  is  a  seedling  of  Catawba,  which  it  resembles,  differing 
chiefly  in  having  a  lighter -color  and  in  being  less  pulpy  and  more 
juicy.  It  is,  also,  more  delicate  in  flavor.  One  point  of  superiority 
in  Diana  is  that  it  ripens  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier,  mak- 
ing possible  its  culture  in  regions  where  the  season  is  too  short  for 
Catawba.  The  defects  of  Diana  are  that  the  vines  are  tender,  and 
during  cold  winters  must  be  protected  in  many  parts  of  Xew  York ; 
the  grapes  ripen  unevenly;  both  berries  and  foliage  are  suscep- 
tible to  fungi ;  it  is  a  shy  bearer  in  many  localities.  In  favorable 
situations,  however,  Diana  is  a  very  satisfactory  grape  for  the- ama- 
teur, and,  where  it  does  especially  well,  proves  profitable  for  the 
local  market. 

DUTCHESS 

Dutchess  is  a  variety  for  the  amateur.  It  is  grown  because  of 
its  delicious  flavor,  handsome  appearance,  and  its  good  keeping 
qualities.  It  should  not  be  planted  extensively  in  commercial 
vineyards,  since  the  vine  is  tender  to  cold  and  capricious  as  to  soils. 
Moreover  the  berries  do  not  ripen  evenly,  and  berries  and  foliage 


1232  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

are  susceptible  to  fungi.  Dutchess  does  not  require  a  very  rich 
soil  nor  close  pruning.  The  bunches  should  be  thinned,  and  should 
be  picked  as  soon  as  ripe,  since  the  grapes  have  a  tendency  to  crack 
when  over-ripe.  The  clusters  are  especially  fine  when  bagged. 

ECLIPSE 

Eclipse  is  a  seedling  of  Niagara  and  therefore  a  grandchild  of 
Concord,  which  it  resembles,  differing  chiefly  in  being  earlier  and 
of  much  better  color.  Unfortunately  the  berries  and  bunches  are 
smaller  than  those  of  Concord.  The  vines  are  hardly  surpassed  by 
those  of  any  other  variety,  being  hardy,  healthy,  and  productive. 
The  ripened  fruit  hangs  on  the  vines  for  a  long  time  without  de- 
terioration and  the  grapes  do  not  crack  in  wet  weather.  Eclipse 
ripens  several  days  earlier  than  Concord  and  should  make  a  splen- 
did forerunner  of  that  standard  sort  for  either  home  or  market. 

ION  A 

In  flavor  lona  is  a  rare  combination  of  sweetness  and  acidity  - 
pure,  delicate,  and  vinous.  The  flesh  is  transparent,  melting,  ten- 
der, and  juicy;  the  seeds  are  few,  small,  and  part  readily  from  the 
flesh ;  the  color  is  a  peculiar  dark-red  wine  with  a  tinge  of  ame- 
thyst; the  bunch,  at  its  best,  is  large,  though  rather  loose.  The 
fruit  does  not  decay  readily  and  may  be  kept  in  a  good  fruit  room 
until  late  winter  without  loss  of  flavor  and  without  the  berries 
loosening  from  Jhe  bunch.  The  vine  characters  of  lona  are  not  so 
good  as  those  of  the  fruit.  To  do  well  it  must  have  a  soil  exactly 
suited  to  its  needs.  Seemingly  it  does  best  in  deep,  dry,  sandy,  or 
gravelly  clays.  It  cannot  be  grown  in  damp,  rich,  black  soils  nor 
in  poor  sands  or  gravels.  It  does  especially  well  when  trained 
against  walls  or  buildings,  attaining  rare  perfection  under  such 
conditions.  It  is  doubtfully  hardy  and  in  many  parts  of  the  state 
must  have  winter  protection.  Few  varieties  are  more  satisfactory 
for  the  garden,  and,  in  favored  conditions,  it  is  a  good  local  market 
sort. 

JEFFERSON 

Jefferson  is  a  seedling  of  Concord  crossed  with  lona.  Tt  resem- 
bles Concord  in  vigor,  productiveness,  and  healthfulness,  and  lona 
in  color  and  quality  of  fruit.  The  crop  ripens  two  weeks  later 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES  l-:>;> 

than  Concord  and  the  vines  are  not  nearly  so  hardy  —  faults  that 
debar  it  from  taking  high  rank  as  a  commercial  grape  in  .New 
York.  Fortunately  the  vines  yield  readily  to  "  laying  down  "  for 
winter  protection  so  that  even  in  commercial  plantations  it  is  not 
difficult  to  protect  them.  The  fruit  of  Jefferson  is  large,  well- 
formed,  compact,  with  berries  of  a  uniform  size  and  color,  which, 
taken  together,  make  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  the  red  grapes. 
The  flesh  is  firm,  tender,  and  juicy,  with  a  rich,  vinous  flavor  and 
delicate  aroma,  which  persists  even  after  the  berries  have  dried 
into  raisins.  The  variety  thrives  in  nearly  all  grape  soils,  and,  with 
the  characters  we  have  named,  ought  to  find  a  place  in  every  home 
plantation. 

LIXDLEY 

By  common  consent,  Lindley  is  the  best  of  the  red  grapes  orig- 
inated by  Rogers  in  his  crosses  between  the  European  and  the 
American  species.  The  bunches  are  of  only  medium  size  and  are 
somewhat  loose,  but  the  berries  are  well  formed,  of  uniform  size, 
and  of  a  most  attractive  dark-red  color.  The  flesh  is  firm,  fine- 
grained, juicy,  and  tender,  and  has  a  peculiarly  rich,  aromatic 
flavor.  The  fruit  keeps  well  and  ships  well,  and  the  berries 
neither  crack  nor  shatter.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy,  and 
healthy,  but  very  susceptible  to  mildew.  Lindley  has  long  been  a 
favorite  grape  for  the  garden  and  should  continue  to  be  such. 

MOORE  EARLY 

Moore  Early  is  the  standard  grape  of  its  season  in  New  York. 
It  cannot  be  better  described  than  as  an  early  Concord.  It  comes 
in  season  from  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  Concord,  and  the 
last  fruits  of  it  are  sent  to  market  before  those  of  the  latter  grape 
are  picked.  The  vines  are  readily  recognizable  from  those  of  Con- 
mrd,  differing  chiefly  in  being  less  productive  and  more  precocious 
bearers.  To  grow  the  variety  satisfactorily,  the  soil  must  be  rich, 
well-drained,  and  loose,  and  must  be , frequently  cultivated;  the 
vines  should  be  carefully  pruned  and  cared  for.  The  bunches  of 
Moore  Early  are  not  so  large  as  those  of  Concord  and  are  more  in- 
clined to  looseness.  Sometimes  the  berries  shell  rather  badly. 
Moore  Early  is  by  no  means  an  ideal  grape  for  its  season,  but  until 
something  bette*  is  introduced  it  will  probably  remain  the  best 
early  commercial  grape  in  New  York. 


1234  THE  FRUTT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  404.— THE  NIAGARA 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES  1235 

NIAGARA 

Niagara  is  the  leading  American  green  grape,  holding  the  rank 
among  grapes  of  this  color  that  Concord  holds  among  black  vari- 
eties. It  is,  however,  a  less  valuable  sort  than  Concord,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  should  be  ranked  much  higher  than  several 
others  of  the  green  grapes  with  which  it  must  compete.  In  hardi- 
ness  of  root  and  vine  Niagara  Falls  somewhat  short  of  Concord, 
and  the  variety  cannot  be  relied  on  without  winter  protection 
where  the  thermometer  falls  much  below  zero.  Both  bunches  and 
berries  of  Niagara  are  larger  than  those  of  Concord,  and  are  better 
formed;  the  skin  does  not  crack  so  easy  as  that  of  Concord;  the 
fruit  shells  as  badly,  and  does  not  keep  much,  if  any  longer;  both 
vines  and  fruits  of  Niagara  are  more  susceptible  to  fungous 
disease  than  are  those  of  Concord.  Despite  its  many  defects, 
Xiagara  remains  the  leading  commercial  green  grape  for  New 
York. 

VERGENNES 

Vergennes  has  the  valuable  attribute  of  seldom  failing  to  bear  a 
crop,  making  it  a  valuable  sort  in  locations  where  other  grapes  are 
capricious  in  bearing.  It  ripens  with  Concord  or  a  little  later. 
The  variety  is  unpopular  with  vineyardists  because  of  the  sprawl- 
ing habit  of  the  vines,  making  it  rather  unmanageable.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  fruit  is  attractive,  and,  while  the  quality  is  not 
high,  it  is  good ;  the  flavor  is  agreeable,  the  flesh  is  tender,  and  the 
seeds  and  skin  are  not  objectionable.  It  is  one  of  the  best  keeping 
grapes  and  may  be  found  in  the  markets  even  as  late  as  January  or 
February.  \7ergennes  is  a  grape  above  the  ordinary  and  should 
be  found  in  all  parts  of  New  York  in  both  home  and  commercial 
plantations. 

WINCHELL 

Winchell  is  a  very  early  variety  and  one  of  good  quality  — 
characters  seldom  found  in  combination  in  grapes.  The  vines 
are  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  productive,  and  the  fruit  keeps 
and  ships  well.  Unfortunately  the  berries,  and  under  some  condi- 
tions the  bunches,  are  small;  this,  combined  with  the  fact  that 
green  grapes  are  not  so  popular  as  black  or  red  ones,  has  kept  Win- 
chell from  being  as  generally  planted  in  New  York  as  it  otherwise 

9 


1236  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  TX  XEW  YOEK   STATE 


FIG.  405. —  THE  WORDEN 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES  1237 

would  have  been.  It  is,  however,  a  standard  early  green  grape, 
and  deserves  to  rank  in  home  and  commercial  plantations  as  the 
lic>i  early  grape  of  its  color. 

WORDEN 

Worden  is  the  best  known  and  the  most  meritorious  of  all  the 
numerous  offspring  of  Concord.  It  differs  chiefly  from  its  parent 
in  having  larger  berries  and  bunches,  in  being  of  better  quality, 
and  in  ripening  from  a  week  to  ten  days  earlier.  It  is  equally 
hardy,  healthy,  vigorous,  and  productive.  It  is  more  fastidious 
in  its  adaptations  of  soils'  than  is  its  parent.  Its  chief  fault  is  that 
the  fruit  cracks  easily,  often  -preventing  the  profitable  marketing 
of  a  crop.  The  pulp  of  Worden  is  softer  than  that  of  Concord, 
and  it  is  juicier.  Its  keeping  qualities  are  not  so  good,  making 
it  a  less  satisfactory  variety  to  ship.  It  is  a  more  desirable 
variety  for  the  garden  than  its  parent  because  of  its  higher 
quality;  and,  under  conditions  well  suited  to  it,  is  better  as  a 
commercial  variety,  since  it  is  handsomer  and  of  better  quality. 
In  the  markets  it  ought  to  sell  for  higher  prices  than  Concord  if 
desired  for  immediate  consumption.  In  many  markets  Worden 
is  sold  as  Concord  and  has  the  effect  of  extending  the  Concord 
season.* 


*  See  "  Grapes  of  New  York  "  by  Professor  Hedrick,  Published  by  State  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 


GRAPE-GROWING   SECTIONS   OF   NEW   YORK 

F.  E.  GLADWIX 

Associate  Horticulturist,  Vineyard  Laboratory  of  the  Xew  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Fredonia,  X.  Y. 

The  gi-ape  growing  area  of  Xew  York  is  divided  into  four 
principal  regions  with  one  or  more  rather  limited  outlying  dis- 
tricts. In  point  of  acreage  they  rank  as  follows :  the  Chautau- 
qua  belt,  extending  from  the  Pennsylvania  state  line  on  the  west 
to  Derby  on  the  east;  the  Central  Lakes  region,  which  includes 
the  territory  about  Canandaigua,  Cayuga,  Keuka,  and  Seneca 
lakes  and  the  nearby  area  about  Naples;  the  Hudson  Valley, 
and  the  Lake  Ontario  district,  extending  from  the  Niagara  River 
east  through  Wayne  County.  A  limited  area  about  Fayetteville 
produces  grapes  in  commercial  quantities. 

cox COED 

The  Chautauqua  and  Erie  belt  is  essentially  a  Concord  area, 
as  probably  ninety-five  per  cent  of  all  vines  are  of  that  variety. 
Seldom  has  a  variety  of  any  fruit  been  adopted  so  generally  as 
the  Concord  grape  in  this  district.  Such  extensive  planting  does 
not  necessarily  imply  that  other  varieties  could  not  be  more  profit- 
ably grown  in  many  instances,  where  special  types  and  conditions 
of  soil  occur.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  case  of  "  follow  the  leader." 
That  the  Concord  is  quite  adaptable  to  many  varieties  of  soils, 
and  that  it  is  tolerant  of  considerable  extremes  in  its  moisture 
requirements,  is  proved  over  and  over  again  in  practice  through- 
out the  belt.  That  there  does  exist  the  best  Concord  soil  cannot 
be  doubted,  but  the  areas  of  such  are  rather  limited. 

The  principal  factor  that  makes  the  Concord  grape  the  un- 
disputed leader  among  varieties,  not  only  for  the  Chautauqua 
district  but  for  the  entire  eastern  United  States,  is  its  elasticity 
in  the  matter  of  soils.  In  connection  with  its  wide  range  of  soil 
and  climate  adaptability,  it  is  the  foremost  because  of  its  ability 
to  stand  the  average  winter  temperatures  of  New  York.  This 
important  characteristic  is  dependent  in  a  large  measure  upon 
the  fact  that  this  variety  is  a  midseason  one,  and,  except  under 

[1238] 


GRAPE-GROAVING  SECTIONS  OF  XEAV  YORK  1239 

very  unfavorable  conditions  of  climate,  ripens  its  wood  and  buds 
before  severe  winter  temperatures  occur.  Hardiness,  then,  is  a 
second  feature  which  accounts  for  its  popularity.  With  other 
fruits  there  are  the  annual  and  the  biennial  bearers.  Generally 
speaking,  the  grape  does  not  present  these  characters  in  so  marked 
a  degree,  yet  certain  varieties  approach  the  biennial  bearing  habit. 
The  Concord,  however,  under  good  cultural  conditions  produces 
satisfactory  annual  crops.  To  have  commercial  standing,  any 
variety  must  return  a  good  annual  tonnage. 

The  public  has  been  educated  to  the  Concord  type,  and  the 
black  grape  is  favored  by  the  public  as  is  the  red  apple.  Many 
black  grapes  are  mistaken  for  Concord  to  those  unfamiliar  with 
the  flavor  of  the  full,  ripe  cluster  of  this  variety.  Worden, 
Moore,  and  even  Isabella,  are  often  sold  on  the  city  markets  for 
Concord.  Grape  connoisseurs  do  not  rate  Concord  of  high 
quality,  yet  it  is  the  most  popular  American  grape.  Its  popu- 
larity is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  it  does  not  cloy  the  appetite 
as  do  some  varieties.  Several  clusters  can  be  eaten  by  the  average 
individual  at  one  sitting,  and  as  many  more  within  a  short  time, 
without  that  feeling  of  fullness  that  comes  from  eating  many  of 
the  other  varieties.  Concord  is  grown  extensively,  not  alone  in 
the  Chautauqua  belt,  but  in  the  Central  Lakes  region,  where  it  is 
fast  supplanting  other  varieties.  In  the  Hudson  Valley  and  the 
Niagara  district  it  is  not  so  popular,  but  even  in  these  regions 
its  planting  is  becoming  more  extensive. 

CATAWBA 

The  Catawba  is  probably  the  second  grape  in  point  of  acreage 
in  New  York.  In  the  Chautauqua  area  it  is  very  rarely  grown, 
as  it  is  reputed  to  mature  its  fruit  so  late  as  to  meet  with  killing 
frosts.  The  real  facts  are,  however,  that  the  vineyardists  of  the 
section  are  Concord  growers  and  they  have  not  studied  the 
Catawba  characteristics  as  have  the  growers  on  Keuka  Lake. 
Likewise,  the  latter  do  not  grow  the  Concord  so  well  as  does  the 
Chautauqua  vineyardist.  Each  region  is  a  specialized  one. 
The  principal  reason  why  the  Catawba  has  not  been  more  success- 
fully grown  in  the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  belt  is  found  in  the 
pruning  and  training  of  it.  The  Catawba  would  not  be  a  success 


1240  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


GRAPE-GROWING  SECTIONS  OF  NEW  YORK  1241 

on  Keuka  Lake  if  it  were  trained  as  is  the  Concord  in  the 
( 'hantanqua  arid  Erie  belt.  The  Catawba,  however,  is  more  re- 
stricted  in  its  adaptability  to  soils  than  is  the  Concord.  It  is  more 
susceptible  to  fungous  troubles,  and  it  is  less  tolerant  of  wet  feet 
than  is  the  Concord.  With  average  good  care,  the  vine  makes  a 
vigorous  growth  and  even  under  neglect  continues  to  produce  a 
fair  crop. 

Its  cluster  characteristics  are  superior  to  Concord  in  point  of 
size,  shape,  and  compactness.  However,  Concord  is  the  higher 
producer,  even  under  like  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  care. 
Catawba  is  superior  to  Concord  in  its  keeping  qualities,  fre- 
quently being  held  in  storage  till  late  in  January.  It  hangs  to 
the  vine  well  before  picking,  even  after  the  leaves  have  practically 
all  dropped.  It  is  used  in  large  quantities  in  the  making  of  the 
sweet  and  dry  Catawba  wines  of  the  Keuka  Lake  district.  As  a 
dessert  grape  it  is  very  popular  in  many  localities,  especially 
when  fully  ripened.  It  is  not  the  equal  of  Concord  in  the  manu- 
facture of  unfermented  grape  juice,  but  there  are  possibilities  un- 
explored in  combining  the  juice  of  Catawba  with  other  varieties 
for  this  purpose.  Catawba  may  be  classed  as  the  leading  red 
grape  of  New  York. 

NIAGARA 

This  variety  is  at  the  present  time  the  leading  white  grape  of 
the  state.  In  quality  it  is  not  the  equal  either  of  the  Concord  or 
the  Catawba ;  neither  is  it  adapted  to  so  diverse  soil  conditions. 
The  Lake  Ontario  plain  is  preeminently  the  Niagara  section  of 
the  state.  A  second  but  less  important  area  for  this  variety  lies 
between  Seneca  and  Cayuga  lakes  of  the  Central  Lakes  region. 
A  few  vineyards  of  the  variety  are  found  in  the  Chautauqua  dis- 
trict and  still  fewer  in  the  Hudson  Valley.  When  fully  ripe  it  is 
a  very  showy  grape,  and  for  those  who  prefer  the  foxy  taste 
characteristic  of  most  varieties  of  the  Labrusca  species,  Niagara 
furnishes  it  in  unadulterated  form.  Too  often  Niagara  is 
shipped  before  it  is  fit  for  dessert  purposes.  This  variety  is  par- 
ticularly  weak  in  root,  and  many  vines  are  killed  annually 
through  freezing.  It  does  not  mature  its  wood  so  well  as  Con- 
cord, and  many  buds  are  injured  by  winter  temperature.  In 
regions  where  black  rot  is  prevalent,  Niagara  is  quite  often  badly 


1242  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

affected.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
the  vine  makes  a  very  satisfactory  growth.  Very  often  Xiagara 
matures  a  heavy  crop  at  the  expense  of  the  succeeding  one.  Its 
season  is  practically  that  of  Concord.  Other  and  better  white 
grapes  are  grown  in  Xew  York,  but  none  reach  the  commercial 
importance  of  this  variety. 

DELAWARE 

Delaware  is  the  American  grape  of  quality,  and  in  Xew  York 
it  probably  ranks  third  in  commercial  impoTtance.  It  is  so 
elastic  in  its  soil  requirements  that  it  is  adapted  to  many  types, 
and  endures  great  climatic  extremes.  It  matures  its  fruit  early 
enough  to  escape  killing  frosts,  and  is  particularly  resistant  to 
winter  temperatures.  It  is  attractive  in  appearance  and  ships 
well.  The  cluster  is  very  compact,  shouldered  and  of  beautiful 
light  red  color.  Delaware  is  very  productive,  but  lacks  vigor. 
It  is  fairly  immune  to  black  rot,  but  is  susceptible  to  both 
powdery  and  downy  mildew.  Its  chief  faults  are  the  small  size 
of  the  vine,  slowness  of  growth  and  the  small  size  of  the  ber- 
ries. It  requires  close  pruning,  good  cultivation,  and  liberal 
fertilization. 

It  is  the  leading  dessert  grape  of  Xew  York.  It  is  used  ex- 
tensively for  blending  in  the  manufacture  of  champagne  and  in 
making  Delaware  wines.  In  Xew  York  the  variety  is  grown 
most  extensively  about  the  shores  of  Keuka  Lake,  both  for  wine 
making  and  for  table  use.  The  Hudson  Valley  probably  ranks 
second  in  the  growing  of  this  grape. 

At  the  present  time,  Delaware  is  not  nearly  so  profitable  com- 
mercially as  in  former  years.  The  small  size  of  the  vine  and 
fruit  clusters  necessitates  a  much  higher  market  price  in  order  to 
get  the  same  returns  as  from  an  acre  of  Concord  or  Catawba, 
The  growing  of  Delaware  is  on  the  wane,  in  Xew  York.  Where 
its  quality  is  appreciated  and  the  corresponding  market  price  is 
sufficient  to  equalize  the  lessened  tonnage,  it  still  ought  to  prove  a 
profitable  grape.  It  certainly  should  have  a  place  in  every  home 
garden. 


SKCTIONS   OK    XK\V    V(»I:K  1243 


WORDEX 

Worden,  the  best  black  offspring  of  Concord,  probably  ranks 
fourth  in  importance  in  the  grape  growing  of  -New  York.  It 
diifers  chiefly  from  Concord  in  having  larger  berries  and  clusters, 
in  possessing  better  quality,  and  being  from  a  week  to  ten  days 
curlier.  It  is  equally  hardy  and  productive  with  Concord,  but 
its  vigor  falls  somewhat  short  of  that  variety.  It  is  more  par- 
ticular in  its  choice  of  soils  than  is  its  parent.  Its  chief  defect 
consists  in  tenderness  of  skin,  which,  during  wet  maturing  sea- 
sons, frequently  cracks  and  deterioration  follows.  A  second  de- 
fect of  the  variety  is  in  the  small  green  berries  often  found  on 
the  cluster  at  maturity,  necessitating  the  removal  of  all  such  at 
the  packing  table.  A  third  fault,  in  many  seasons,  is  the  failure 
to  mature  evenly.  Two  or  three  pickings  are  required  in  order 
to  harvest  the  fruit  at  its  best.  The  first  picking  always  pro- 
duces the  most  satisfactory  fruit  for  packing,  for  often  no  fur- 
ther ripening  takes  place  after  this  period,  at  least  in  so  far  as 
coloring  is  concerned,  although  a  slightly  greater  amount  of 
sugar  may  be  fixed  when  the  fuit  is  allowed  to  hang  a  few  days 
after  the  larger  part  of  it  is  fit  for  market. 

Worden  cannot  be  put  on  distant  markets  at  its  best,  but  for 
local  consumption  and  nearby  shipments  it  is  profitably  grown  in 
.Xe\v  York.  While  this  variety  is  higher  in  quality  than  Con- 
cord, it  is  not  so  generally  preferred  by  the  average  consumer, 
as  it  tends  to  cloy  the  appetite  more  than  does  the  latter  variety. 

The  Chautauqua  and  Hudson  Valley  districts  lead  in  the 
production  of  Worden,  comparatively  few  being  grown  in  the 
Central  Lakes  and  Niagara  regions. 

MOORE 

Moore,  or  Moore  Early,  probably  ranks  fifth  among  the  com- 
mercial varieties  grown  in  New  York.  The  greater  percentage 
of  this  variety  is  grown  in  the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  belt.  It  is 
the  standard  black  grape  of  its  season  for  the  state.  It  ripens 
from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier  than  does  the  Concord.  The 
vines  are  not  so  hardy  nor  so  healthy  as  the  latter,  and  they  require 
certain  soils  for  their  best  development.  The  pruning  of  Moore  is 
a  problem  in  itself.  The  clusters  of  this  variety  are  not  so  large 


1244  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

as  Concord,  but  the  berries  are  considerably  larger.  The  flavor, 
when  fully  ripened,  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  variety  last 
named,  although  the  quality  and  texture  of  the  flesh  is  inferior. 
The  character  of  the  skin  renders  it  a  good  grade  for  shipment 
to  distant  markets.  Although  vine  and  fruit  characteristics  are 
not  ideal,  this  variety  surpasses  the  other  black  grapes  of  its 
season,  Champion  and  Hartford.  Too  often  Moore  is  shipped 
before  it  is  edible,  and  this  has  had  a  very  deterrent  effect  on 
subsequent  shipments.  The  most  that  can  be  said  in  its  favor  is 
that  it  is  early. 

OTHER    VARIETIES 

Besides  the  varieties  already  mentioned,  many  others  are 
grown  in  the  various  grape  sections  of  the  state  by  reason  of 
special  uses  and  markets,  or  from  special  adaptability  to  the 
soils  and  climate  of  the  particular  section. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  already  cited  as  being  grown  in 
the  Chautauqua  belt,  occasional  small  areas  of  Clinton,  Cham- 
pion, Ives,  Isabella,  and  some  of  the  Rogers  hybrids  are  seen. 
These,  as  a  rule,  are  not  recent  plantings,  but  rather  those  made 
when  the  growing  of  Concord  was  largely  in  its  infancy.  Of 
the  varieties  mentioned,  Clinton  is  the  only  one  that,  to  the 
writer's  knowledge,  has  been  planted  within  recent  years.  It  is 
in  demand  for  the  making  of  red  wines,  and  it  probably  will  be 
used  in  future  for  blended,  unfermented  grape  juices.  Of  the 
Rogers  hybrids,  Lindley  and  Agawam  are  the  most  common.  In 
this  belt  the  important  varieties  rank  in  the  following  order: 
Concord,  Worden,  Moore,  Delaware,  Niagara,  Catawba,  and 
Champion.  This  belt  as  a  whole  is  slow  to  take  up  a  new  vari- 
ety, even  in  an  experimental  way,  but  prefers  to  cling  to  the  old 
established  ones. 

Of  the  Central  Lakes  region  the  Keuka  Lake  district  furnishes 
the  greatest  number  of  varieties.  In  addition  to  Catawba,  Con- 
cord, and  Delaware,  there  are  found  growing  in  considerable 
numbers  Isabella,  Clinton,  Ives,  Diana,  Elvira,  lona,  Eumelan, 
Niagara,  Worden,  'and  Diamond.  A  large  percentage,  such  as 
Delaware,  lona,  Elvira,  Eumelan,  and  Isabella,  form  the  basis 
for  champagne.  Concord  and  Catawba  -are  grown  both  for  table 
use  and  for  other  wines,  and  Clinton  is  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  red  wines. 


GRAPE-GROWING  SECTIONS  OF  NEW  YORK  1245 

In  the  Naples  district  of  the  Central  Lakes  region,  Concord  is 
the  leading  variety.  Here  are  also  found  several  good-sized 
acreages  of  Duchess,  a  variety  that  is  very  much  in  demand  by 
the  wine  makers  of  Keuka  Lake,  but  which  is  very  rare  in  that 
district, 

The  vineyards  about  Seneca  and  Cayuga  lakes  are  largely  Con- 
cord and  Niagara.  Near  Interlaken  there  is  growing  a  large 
aiMvaiio  of  Diamond.  A  few  Elvira  vineyards  are  to  be  found  on 
the  west  shore.  To  a  lesser  degree,  Delaware  is  also  grown. 

The  Hudson  valley  has  been  the  foremost  of  all  the  grape 
districts  of  New  York  in  the  testing  out  of  the  newer  varieties. 
This  may  be  accounted  for  in  part  by  the  fact  that  many 
varieties  of  American  grapes  have  been  originated  in  the  region. 
At,  present  Conco'rd,  Champion,  Cottage,  Clinton,  Brighton, 
Bacchus,  Delaware,  Elvira,  Empire  iState,  Hartford,  Moore, 
Martha,  Niagara,  Pocklington,  Duchess,  Worden,  Wyoming, 
Tlster,  and  several  of  the  Kogers  hybrids,  comprise  nearly  all  the 
varieties  that  are  grown  for  market. 

In  the  Niagara  district,  the  Niagara  is  the  most  commonly 
grown.  This  variety  is  followed  in  importance  by  Concord. 
Some  few  growers  in  the  western  end  of  the  district  are  growing 
Campbell.  In  the  vicinity  of  Irondequoit  Bay,  Concord,  Nia- 
gara, Delaware,  Ives,  and  Clinton  are  found  growing.  Most  of 
the  grapes  in  this  area  are  either  sold  on  the  Rochester  markets 
or  used  in  wine  making. 

About  Fayetteville  are  a  few  vineyards  of  considerable  size. 
In  these,  a  large  number  of  varieties  are  growing.  This  region 
is  particularly  subject  to  severe  winter  temperatures,  so  that  in 
order  to  grow  grapes  successfully  the  vines  must  be  given  winter 
protection  by  laying  down  and  covering.  Even  with  this  added 
expense,  a  few  in  the  locality  have  found  grape  growing  profit- 
able. 

Grape  growing  in  New  York  is  one  of  the  successful  fruit  in- 
dustries largely  because  of  natural  topographic  situations,  which 
in  turn  have  influenced  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  grape  dis- 
tricts; but  not  the  least  important  factor  in  making  New  York 
the  leader  in  the  growing  of  American  grapes  is  the  large  number 
of  meritorious  varieties  from  which  to  choose,  according  to  their 
fitness  for  the  various  localities. 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY 


LEE  J.  VANCE 
Editor,  American  Wine  Press,  New  York 

The  average  Xew  Yorker  is  not  so  well 
posted  as  he  should  be  on  the  great  extent, 
the  value,  and  the  importance  of  the  wine 
industry  of  the  Empire  State. 

Many  people  know  in  a  general  way  of 
Xew  York  wines  and  champagnes.  But  it 
is  not  until  they  have  visited  the  large 
wine  making  establishments  that  they 
fully  realize  that  the  Xew  York  wine 
industry  is  one  of  the  big  assets  of  the 
state.  In  other  words,  the  wine  industry 

of  Xew  York  gives  employment  to  many  thousand  people ;  it  rep- 
resents many  millions  of  dollars  of  invested  capital,  and  it  brings 
annually  large  returns,  as  well  as  fame  and  reputation  to  the 
vintages  of  the  state. 


FIG.  407. —  GRAPE  HARVEST  ix  THE  LAKE  KEUKA  DISTRICT 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  Xew  York  stands  first  in 
the  production  of  sparkling  wines  or  champagnes.     Such  is  the 

[1246] 


THE  XEW  YORK  WIXE  INDUSTRY  1247 

fact.  This  state  produces  about  two-thirds  of  all  the  champagne 
made  in  tho  United  States.  Only  one  state,  California,  exceeds 
Xew  York  in  the  production  of  dry,  or  still,  wines. 

According  to  the  most  recent  estimates,  there  are  some  62,000 
vineyards  in  New  York  State.  The  average  yield  is  from  one 
and  one-half  to  two  tons  of  grapes  per  acre.  Of  this  yield  about 
one-half,  or  from  (10,000  to  65,000  tons,  is  used  for  the  making  of 
wines  and  grape  juice. 

Few,  if  any,  states  are  better  located  or  better  adapted  for  grape 
growing  and  wine  making  than  New  York.  In  the  matter  of 
location  alone,  the  Xew  York  grape  and  wine  producers  have  a 
distinct  advantage.  For  one  thing,  they  have  rather  near  at 
hand  all  the  large  eastern  cities  —  the  largest  and  best  markets 
in  the  United  States.  Thus  the  Xew  York  wine  makers  are 
3,000  miles  nearer  to  the  greatest  consuming  centers  of  the  coun- 
try than  the  California  producers,  their  largest  competitors. 

As  to  adaptation  for  viticulture,  Xew  York  has  such  a  diversity 
of  climatic  conditions  and  soils  that  grape  culture  has  been  suc- 
;essfully  carried  on  for  the  past  fifty  years  over  a  large  area  of 
the  state.  In  certain  sections,  the  climate  conditions  and  soil 
impare  most  favorably  with  some  of  the  renowned  vineyard  dis- 
rricts  of  Kurope,  such  as  are  found  in  France,  (jermany,  and 
Northern  Italy.  Indeed,  the  Keuka  Lake  region  is  known  as 
"  the  American  champagne  district."  It  is  on  the  same  isother- 
lal  line  as  the  champagne  district  of  France,  and  the  natural 
mditions,  together  with  the  character  and  quality  of  certain 
irieties  of  grapes,  are  just  right  for  producing  sparkling  wine  of 
le  champagne  type. 

More  champagne  is  made  in  this  district  than  in  all  of  the 
ith er  sections  of  the  United  States.  Xew  York  champagnes  have 
ia<le  the  state  famous,  for  they  are  known  and  sold  over  the 
rhole  country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  lead- 
ing brands  of  Xew  York  champagne  now  rival  in  the  open  market 
lose  from  the  French  district.  Although  the  Xew  York  wine 
industry  is  comparatively  young,  our  wine  makers  have  been 
making  steady  progress,  and  their  wines  and  champagnes  are 
equal  in  purity  and  quality  to  the  foreign  wines  of  similar  type 
ind  character. 


1248          THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1249 

During  the  past  ten  years,  it  is  estimated  that  the  manufacture 
of  still  wines  in  New  York  State  has  increased  about  25  per  cent, 
and  that  of  champagnes  about  50  per  cent.  In  1904,  the  output 
was  about  2,600,000  gallons  of  dry  and  sweet  wines,  and  about 
1,250,000  bottles  of  champagne.  The  yield  of  1914  was  about 
3,250,000  gallons  of  dry  and  sweet  wines,  and  about  1,750,000 
bottles  of  champagne.  Of  course  the  vintage,  or  output  of  wine, 
depending  as  it  does  upon  the  grape  yield,  will  vary  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  This  year  (1915)  the  production  of  wines  in  New 
York  will  be  below  the  average,  owing  to  the  decrease  in  the  size 
of  the  grape  crop  in  the  state. 

FOl'K    \VK\K-MAKI.\ (I    DISTRICTS 

The  New  York  wine  industry  is  distributed  in  four  large  grape- 
growing  sections,  as  follows:  (1)  the  Hudson  River  district,  (2) 
the  Central  Lakes  region,  (3)  the  Chautauqua  district,  and  (4) 
the  Niagara  district. 

The  Hudson  lliver  district  includes  the  counties  of  Orange, 
Ulster  and  Dutchess  as  well  as  the  southern  part  of  Columbia, 
with  a  total  of  about  5,000  acres  of  vineyard.  There  are  several 
wine  cellars  in  this  district,  among  the  largest  and  most  important 
being  that  of  the  Brotherhood  Wine  Company  at  Washington- 
ville,  Orange  County.  Here,  as  far  back  as  1837-38,  a  French 
vintner,  John  Jacques,  set  out  a  small  vineyard,  in  which  some! 
of  the  original  vines  are  still  growing.  A  few  years  later  wine  was 
made,  and  the  old  Jacques  cellar  forms  a  small  part  of  the  large 
establishment  of  the  present  wine  company. 

The  Central  Lakes  region  comprises  some  17,000  acres  of  vine- 
yards about  Keuka,  Canandaigua  and  Seneca  lakes  in  wes- 
tern New  York.  The  headquarters  of  the  wine  industry  are 
about  Hammondsport  at  the  head  of  Lake  Keuka,  Here,  within 
a  radius  of  half  a  dozen  miles,  are  located  a  number  of  the  largest 
wineries  in  the  state.  The  win©  industry  in  this  district  dates 
from  1860,  when  the  Pleasant  Valley  Wine  Company  was  formed, 
and  its  cellars  were  established  at  Eheims,  a  few  miles  from  Ham- 
mondsport. Five  years  later  the  Urbana  Wine  Company  was 
organized  and  a  cellar  built  at  Urbana,  four  miles  below  Ham- 
mondsport, on  the  banks  of  Lake  Keuka. 


1250 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY 


YORK   Si  A  IK 


THE  XEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1251 

The  Chautauqiia  district  includes  the  wine  industry  in  a  grape 
of  some  30,000  acres,  which  extends  from  Erie  County  to 
the  Pennsylvania  line  along  the  southeastern  shore  of  Lake  Erie 
for  a  distance  of  about  50  miles.  It  is  the  largest  single,  con- 
tinuous stretch  of  vineyards  in  the  United  States.  The  wine 
industry  in  this  district  was  started  in  1850,  when  the  Ryckman 
cellar  was  built  at  Brocton.  In  the  sixties  and  seventies  other 
wineries  were  established,  and  for  a  number  of  years,  or  up  to 
1884,  they  took  most  of  the  grape  crop.  Then  came  a  grape 
boom,  and  the  planting  of  vineyards  in  the  Chautauqua  district 
increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  great  bulk  of  the  crop  was 
of  the  Concord  variety,  which,  although  it  did  not  make  a  high- 
grade  wine,  was  in  growing  demand  for  table  purposes  and  for 
grape  juice.  This,  together  with  the  flooding  of  the  markets 
with  cheap  California  wines,  gave  the  wine  industry  of  the  dis- 
trict a  setback  from  which  it  has  not  yet  recovered. 

The  Niagara  district  includes  the  industry  in  Erie,  Niagara 
and  Monroe  counties  with  a  total  of  about  3,800  acres  of  yine- 
yards.  There  are  several  wine  cellars  in  this  district;  they  use 
grapes  from  their  own  and  other  districts.  In  fact,  large  quan- 
tities of  grapes  from  the  different  districts  in  New  York  are 
shipped  each  season  to  wine  makers  in  the  large^cities  and  to 
wineries  outside  of  the  state. 

VARIETIES    OF    GRAPES    USED    FOR    MAKING    WINES 

Professor  U.  P.  Iledrick  in  his  monumental  work,  "  The  Grapes 
of  New  York,"  has  given  a  very  complete  account  of  all  of  the 
important  varieties  of  American  grapes  and  of  the  different  grape- 
growing  districts  in  this  state.  Those  who  desire  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  varieties  should  read  Professor  Hedrick's  work,  which  is 
a  mine  of  information.* 

Native  Grapes 

New  York  wines  are  made  from  the  native,  or  American,  grapes. 
Although  there  are  several  hundred  varieties,  only  some  sixteen 


*  The  "  Grapes  of  New  York,"  by  U.  P.  Hedrick,  Horticulturist,  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station.   See  also  article  by  F.  E.  Gladwin,  page  1238. 


1252 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN 


YORK  STATE 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1253 

or  eighteen  kinds  are  used  to  any  extent  by  the  wine  makers.  In 
fact,  the  great  bulk  of  the  New  York  grape  crop  is  limited  to 
only  three  varieties  —  Concord,  Catawba,  and  Delaware. 

Foreign  Grapes 

Thus  far,  efforts  to  establish  vineyards  of  Vitis  vinifera,  or 
Kuropean  grapes,  in  Now  York  and  other  eastern  states  have 
not  met  with  success.  However,  tests  now  being  made  at  the 
Geneva  Experiment  Station  go  to  show  that  European  grapes  will 
ii-row  and  flourish  in  Xew  York  State,  and  those  growing  there 
are  as  vigorous  and  thrifty  as  the  native  vines. 

If  vineyards  of  European  grapes  "should  be  established  in  Xew 
York,  it  would  revolutionize  the  wine  industry;  for  they  would 
supply  our  wine  makers  with  an  entirely  new  variety  of  grape, 
which  would  enable  them  to  produce  wines  of  a  type  and  char- 
acter very  similar  to  the  foreign  kinds. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  wines  and  the  varieties  of  grapes  now 
used  in  making  them: 

Red  dry  wines  (Claret  and  Burgundy  types)  — Ives,  Clinton, 
Concorn,  Eumeland,  and  the  like. 

White  dry  wines  (Rhine  and  Sauterne  types)  —  Catawba, 
Delaware,  lona,  and  the  like. 

Sparkling  wines  (Champagnes) — Delaware,  .Catawba,  Dut- 
chess,  Diana,  Elvira,  Bacchus,  Diamond,  and  the  like. 

For  red  dry  wines,  Ives,  Clinton  and  Concord  are  in  demand, 
as  they  give  a  bright  ruby  color,  fine  body,  and  fruity  flavor. 

For  white  dry  wines,  the  grapes  most  suitable  are  the  Catawba, 
Delaware,  and  lona.  A  dry  Catawba  wine  resembles  in  style  a 
German  hock  or  Rhine  wine,  although  it  has  other  characteristics 
of  its  own.  Fine  wines  of  the  dry  Sauterne  and  Graves  types 
are  made  from  the  Delaware,  which  is  rightly  regarded  as  one 
of  the  choicest  American  grapes.  lona  produces  a  splendid 
white  wine,  which,  when  carefully  made  and  fully  matured,  has 
a  sweetness  and  fragrance  similar  to  that  which  is  found  in  the 
best  French  <Sauternes. 

For  sparkling  wines,  or  champagnes,  a  large  proportion  of 
Delaware  and  Catawba  is  used  in  combination  with  the  juices 
from  other  grapes,  the  whole  forming  what  is  called  the  "  blend," 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1255 

or  cuvee.  All  champagne,  whether  made  in  this  country  or  in 
France,  is  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  different  grape  juices.  Thus 
certain  varieties  of  grapes  have  the  right  body,  acidity,  or  neutral 
llavor,  while  other  varieties  give  the  vivacity,  sparkle,  and 
mousse,  which  are  so  greatly  desired. 

In  brief,  the  correct  blending  of  wines  is  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  the  art  of  wine  making.  The  practice  i:; 
based  upon  the  differences  between  wines,  so  that  the  mixing 
together  of  different  kinds  or  qualities  of  wines  will  yield  a  better 
product  than  any  one'  of  the  wines  that  go  into  the  blend.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  proper  blending  of  eastern  wines  with  each 
other  and  with  California  wines  give  good  results,  both  for  the 
wine  maker  and  for  the  consumer. 

THE    WINE    MAKING    SEASON 

The  term  "  vintage  "  is  used  to  cover  the  wine-making  season, 
and  it  includes  (1)  gathering  of  the  grapes,  (2)  crushing,  press- 
ing, and  fermentation  and  (3)  the  general  cellar  operations  con- 
nected with  the  handling  and  care  of  the  "  must/'  or  new  wine. 

The  Grape  Harvest 

In  Xew  York  the  vintage  begins  early  in  September  and  con- 
tinues until  the  last  of  October.  It  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
variety  of  grapes,  the  weather  conditions  during  the  growing- 
season,  and  the  location  of  the  vineyards.  Different  varieties  of 
grapes  ripen  at  different  times  in  the  different  districts,  and 
they  ripen  at  different  times  in  the  same  district.  As  a  rule, 
the  vintage  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley  is  from  a  week  to  ten 
days  earlier  than  it  is  in  the  western  New  York  districts. 

Many  of  the  wineries  have  vineyards  of  their  own,  but  all  of 
them  purchase  large  quantities  of  grapes  from  numerous  small 
growers.  Both  before  and  during  the  grape  harvest,  representa- 
tives of  the  wine  cellars  usually  make  contracts  for  a  certain 
number  of  tons  of  grapes  at  a  certain  price  per  ton. 

The  price  paid  for  grapes  is  mostly  a  matter  of  supply  and 
demand,  but  there  is  always  a  demand  for  the  best  wine  grapes. 
The  highest  prices  are  paid  for  grapes  which  are  used  for  making 


1256 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1257 

champagne,  such  ;is  the  I  )elaware,  Catawha,  Klvira,  IJacclius,  and 
Diamond.  Kven  when  the  Delaware  and  Catawba  crops  have 
been  lar^e.  the  ;i venire  pi-ice  h;is  heen  from  $15  to  $50  per  ton. 
In  some  years  I  )ela\v;i res  sell  for  wine-making  purposes  as  high 

^75  pei-  ton,  and  Catawbas  for  $(>r>  per  ton. 

The  yield  of  Elvira,  Diamond,  Bacchus,  Eumelan,  lona,  and 
other  choice  varieties  for  wine  making  is  not  large.  Hence  they 
usually  bring  a  good  price  —  from  $(55  to  $75  per  ton.  The  low- 
est prices  are  paid  for  an  ordinary  variety,  such  as  Concord.  Of 
late  years,  owing  to  the  bidding  by  the  large  grape-juice  manu- 
facturers, the  price  for  Concords  has  averaged  very  high;  that  is, 
about  $-')()  per  ton.  In  1914  the  price  for  some  Concords  in  the 
Chautauqua  district  was  as  high  as  $50  and  $55  per  ton.  This 
year  (1915)  the  average  price  of  Concords  will  be  much  lower, 
probably  not  more  than  $26  and  $28  per  ton. 

The  figures  above  given  for  New  York  grapes  are  rather  high 
when  compared  with  the  prices  paid  in  California  for  different 
wine  grapes.  During  the  past  few  years  grapes  for  making  sweet 
wines,  such  as  Muscats,  have  sold  in  California  as  low  as 
$0  and  $7  per  ton,  and  seldom  over  $10  and  $12  per  ton;  while 
grapes  for  dry  wines,  such  as  Zinfandel  and  Burger,  have 
brought  from  $14  to  $15  per  ton,  and  the  choicest  ^varieties,  such 
as  Cabernet  Sauvigiion,  Petite  Sirah,  Franken  and  Riesling,  from 
$22  to  $24  per  ton. 

Thus  the  New  York  wine  makers  are  at  a  disadvantage  in 
producing  very  cheap  wines.  But  cheapness  is  not  the  only  thing 
to  be  considered  in  the  wine  industry.  As  we  have  pointed  out, 
the  New  York  wine  producers  have  the  advantage  of  being  close 
to  the  largest  and  best  markets  of  the  country.  Their  wines, 
being  made  from  a  different  variety  of  grape,  are  different  from 
California  wines.  The  demand  for  New  York  wine  is  as  much  a 
matter  of  taste  as  of  price,  and  they  are  sold  on  an  average  at  a 
higher  price  than  California  wines.  The  people  are  willing  to 
pay  for  the  kind  of  wine  they  want  and  like.  Every  season  the 
American  people  eat  immense  quantities  of  New  York  grapes ; 
they  like  their  flavor  and  aroma,  and  hence  they  appreciate  the 
same  qualities  in  the  wines  which  are  made  from  those  grapes. 


1258 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


(lathering  the  G 'rapes 

The  time  to  gather  the  grapes  for  wine  is  when  they  have 
reached  that  stage  of  maturity  known  as  "  wine-making  ripe- 
ness." This  stage  of  ripeness  is  determined  by  means  of  a  must- 
scale  or  saccharometer.  As  a  rule,  the  careful  wine  maker  takes 
a  number  of  bunches  of  grapes  and  expresses  the  juice  into  a 
receptacle.  He  drops  the  must-scale  into  the  juice  and  the 
sugar  content  will  be  indicated  on  the  scale. 


FIG.  413. —  SECTION  OF  PRESS  ROOM,  SHOWING  HYDRAULIC   PRESSES 

The  grape  crop  is  gathered  in  trays  or  boxes  that  hold  from 
thirty  to  forty  pounds.  When  filled  they  are  carried  to  the  end 
of  the  rows,  where  there  is  a  driveway.  Here  the  boxes  are  col- 
lected in  wagons  and  drawn  to  the  wine  cellar  or  to  the  railroad 
station,  where  they  are  loaded  on  the  cars. 

Crushing  and  Stemming 

When  the  grapes  arrive  at  the  winery  they  are  first  weighed ; 
they  are  then  carried  by  hand  or  by  a  conveyor  and  dumped  into 
the  hopper  of  the  crusher.  The  crusher  consists  of  two  grooved 


THE  Xi-:\v    YORK    WINK   INDUSTRY 


1259 


FIG.  414. —  SINGLE  GRAPE  RACK  FOR  HYDRAULIC 
WINE  PRESS 


cylinders,  which,  in  revolving,  break  the  skins  without  crushing 
the  seeds.  After  passing  through  the  crusher,  the  grapes  fall 
into  the  stemmer.  The  stems  are  torn  off  and  carried  to  one  end 
of  the  machine,  where  they  are  discharged ;  the  seeds,  skins, 
pulp,  and  juice  escape  through  the  bottom  and  are  conveyed  in  a 
chute  to  the  press,  which  is  usually  on  the  floor  below. 

Pressing 

The  most  improved 
forms  of  wine  presses 
are  now  found  in  all 
of  the  large  Xo\v  York 
wineries.  The  old  style 
wine  presses  are  not 
used,  except  in  a  small 
way.  The  new  presses 
;iro  the  result  of 
American  skill  and 

mechanical  ingenuity.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  foreign 
manufacturers  have  taken  American  wine  presses  as  their 
models. 

There  are  three  kttrds  or  types 
of  wine  presses  —  the  screw,  the 
knuckle  joint,  and  the  hydraulic. 
The  latter  type  of  press  is  a  marvel 
of    power,    convenience,    and    ef- 
ficiency.    In  using  the  hydraulic 
press  the  pomace  is  built  up  into 
a    "  cheese "    with    a    system    of 
cloths  and  racks.    The  single  racks 
are  made  square,  of  wooden  strips 
one-half   inch    thick   by   one   and 
one-half   inch    wide,    placed   one- 
quarter  inch   apart,   with  five  or  more  strips  two  inches  wide 
nailed  across  (Fig.  414).     The  double  racks  are  made  with  the 
same  number  of  slats  both  ways,  closely  nailed  (Fig.  415). 
The  manner  of  building  up  a  grape  cheese  is  thus  described  by 


ii  iiii 

/  //  \\\  \\l\\\\\i\  In  HI  ////////////I 

nnillillilnnniliilllnlllllini! 


FIG.  415. —  DOUBLE  RACK  FOR 
HYDRAULIC  WINE  PRESS 


1260  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YOEK  STATE 

the  Boomer  &  Boschert  Press  Company,  of  Syracuse,  K".  Y.,  the 
leading  manufacturers  of  wine  machinery : 

Start  on  the  platform  of  the  press  and  lay  a  rack;  place  thereon  a  form 
three  and  one-half  inches  deep,  and  five  or  six  inches  smaller  each  way  than 
the  rack.  Over  this  form  spread  a  high-grade  cotton  cloth  which  comes  for 
the  purpose.  Fill  the  form  even  full  of  pomace,  then  turn  in  the  sides  and 
ends  of  the  cloth  over  the  pomace,  the  cloth  being  of  sufficient  size  to  cover. 

The  form  is  now  raised  and  another  rack  placed  upon  the  layer  of  pomace 
thus  made,  the  form  being  placed  upon  the  new  rack,  a  cloth  again  placed 
over  it,  and  another  layer  of  pomace  put  in  as  before.  Eight  or  ten  racks  are 
used  in  one  cheese,  and  as  many  cloths  less  one.  When  the  last  layer  is 
formed,  the  form  is  taken  off  and  a  rack  placed.  The  follower  is  then  put  on 
and  the  pressure  applied. 

The  advantages  of  the  hydraulic  wine  press  are,  that  it  is  a 
clean  and  sanitaiy  method  and  that  it  yields  more  juice,  of  a 
better  quality,  and  at  a  less  cost  than  was  given  by  the  old  style 
presses. 

In  large  wineries,  where  many  tons  of  grapes  must  be  handled 
daily,  a  number  of  hydraulic  presses  are  operated.  To  keep  the 
presses  rapidly  supplied  with  material,  a  transfer  car  system  is 
used.  This  system  consist  of  trucks  running  on  tracks  laid  on 
the  floor  between  the  presses  and  loading  platform,  whereby  loaded 
and  unloaded  trucks  are  transferred  between  the  presses  and  the 
loading  platform.  Thus,  while  one  cheese  is  in  the  press  under 
pressure,  another  is  ready  to  take  its  place  when  it  is  removed. 
The  transfer  car  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  412. 

Fermentation 

The  juice,  or  must,  is  conveyed  from  the  press  into  open  tanks 
or  vats  which  have  a  capacity  of  from  500  to  5,000  gallons  or  more. 
It  is  good  practice,  particularly  in  the  manufacture  of  dry  white 
wines,  to  allow  the  must  to  settle  and  clear  itself  before  putting  it 
into  the  fermenting  vessels. 

The  minute  yeast  cells  on  the  outside  and  bloom  of  the 
grape  cause  fermentation.  They  multiply  and  attack  the  suirur 
in  the  must,  breaking  it  up  into  almost  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid  gas.  As  soon  as  the  active  fermentation  is  com- 
pleted, .the  new  wine  is  drawn  from  the  pomace  and  is  put  into 
closed  casks  and  tanks.  It  now  undergoes  a  slow,  or  so-called 
secondary  fermentation,  and  the  sediment  settles  to  the  bottom. 

When  the  new  wines  have  fully  settled,  they  should  be  d 
off  into  clean  casks  in  order  to  rid  them  of  the  sediment.     Tl 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY 


1261 


operation  is  called  "  racking."  The  first  racking  is  usually  done 
during  the  first  month  or  six  weeks ;  second  racking  is  necessary  at 
the  end  of  the  winter,  and  a  third  racking  is  desirable  late  in  the 
summer  or  in  the  fall. 

Before  the  wine  is  ready  for  consumption  or  for  bottling,  it 
should  be  rendered  perfectly  clear  and  bright.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  fining.  The  materials  most  commonly  used  are 
isinglass,  white  or  fresh  egg,  and  gelatine. 


FIG.  416. —  WASHING  WINE  BOTTLES  BY  MACHINERY 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  WINES 

Wines  are  usually  divided  into  two  broad  classes,  dry  wines 
:unl  sweet  wines.  Dry  wines  are  those  in  which  the  sugar  has 
been  entirely  or  almost  fermented  out.  They  may  be  either  red 
or  white  in  color.  Of  the  red  dry  wines  the  most  common  kinds 
;in>  claret  and  Burgundy.  The  white  dry  wines  include  Catawba, 
Delaware,  and  wines  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  types. 

Sweet  wines  are  those  in  which  most  of  the  sugar  must  have 
been  retained,  the  fermentation  being  stopped  by  the  addition  of 
grape  brandy.  This  addition  of  alcohol  to  sweet  wines  is  called 


1262 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


"  fortifying.7'  The  best  known  types  of  sweet  wines  are,  Port, 
Sherry,  Tokay,  Madeira,  Angelica,  Sweet  Catawba,  and  the  like. 
Wines  are  also  classed  as  "  still  "  and  "  sparkling.77  Still  wines 
are  those  in  which  the  carbonic  gas  formed  during  fermentation 
has  wholly  escaped.  Sparkling  wines  are  those  which  are  so 
manipulated  as  to  hold  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  gas. 


FIG.  417. —  BOTTLING  AND  CORKING  THE  XEW  CHAMPAGNE  TO  BE  FERMENTED 
IN  THE  BOTTLE  AND  AGED  IN  Two  VAULTS 


NEW   YORK  S    CHAMPAGNE    INDUSTRY 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  extent  and  importance  of  tl 
New  York  champagne  industry.      The  headquarters  of  this  ii 
dustry  are  in  the  Lake  Keuka  district.     Here  there  are  about  nin 
or   ten    large    concerns    whose   principal    output    is    champa* 
Several  of  the  largest  cellars  cany  in  stock  from  1,000,000 
1,500,000  bottles  of  champagne. 

At  Hammondsport,  at  the  head  of  the  lake,  the  following  chai 
pagne  houses  may  be  mentioned:  Germania  Wine  Cellars,  Hai 
mondsport  Wine  Company  and  the  Roualet  Wine  Company. 


THE  !N"EW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1263 

few  miles  out  of  the  town  at  liheims  is  the  Pleasant  Valley  Wine 
Company.  Four  miles  down  the  lake  from  llammondsport,  at 
l"rl>ana,  are  the  cellars  of  the  Urbana  Wine  Company.  Five 
miles  further  down  on  the  lake  is  the  plant  of  the  White  Top 
Champagne  Company.  At  the  foot  of  Lake  Keuka  at  Penn  Van 
are  the  Hammondsport  Vintage  Company,  Empire  State  Wine 
( 'ompany  and  Garrett  &  Company.  The  leading  champagne  house 
outside  of  the  district  is  the  Brotherhood  Wine  Company,  at  Wash- 
ingtonville,  N.  Y. 

It  requires  skill  and  expert  knowledge  to  make  champagne.  As 
the  process  is  interesting,  and  as  it  is  not  generally  understood, 
some  of  the  principal  features  may  be  briefly  described. 

When  the  wine  has  gone  through  its  first  fermentation,  it  is 
racked  off  into  casks,  where  it  remains  for  some  time,  or  until  a 
blend  of  the  different  wines  is  made.  This  is  called  the  "  cuvee." 
The  wine  is  now  bottled  and  a  second  fermentation  is  started. 
The  bottles  are  put  in  cool  vaults,  where  they  are  packed  in  hori- 
zontal layers  with  thin  strips  of  wood  between  each  layer.  The 
wine  in  this  stage  is  said  to  be  in  "  tirage,"  (Fig.  408). 

The  gas  that  has  been  generated  by  fermentation  is  confined  in 
the  bottles  and  absorbed  by  the  wine.  Thus,  when  a  bottle  of 
champagne  is  uncorked,  the  gas,  seeking  to  escape,  bubbles  through 
the  wine  to  the  surface  and  produces  that  sparkling  effect  which 
is  so  much  admired. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  vaults  at  a  fairly  even  and  low 
temperature,  or  from  50  to  55  degrees  F.?  in  order  to  prevent  loss 
from  breakage  which  a  sharp  or  sudden  rise  in  temperature  would 
cause.  This  factor  is  controlled  in  most  of  the  cellars  by  a  cold- 
storage  system.  The  pressure  of  the  gas,  being  from  75  to  80 
pounds  per  square  inch,  requires  the  use  of  French  bottles  of 
great  strength  and  of  the  best  Spanish  corks.  The  corks  are 
secured  to  the  neck  of  the  bottles  by  a  metal  band,  called  an 
"  agraffe." 

After  the  wine  has  been  in  tirage  from  one  to  two  years,  the 
bottles  are  placed  on  clearing  tables  (Fig.  411),  or  A-shaped 
racks,  the  neck  of  the  bottle  pointing  downward.  In  order  to 
throw  the  sediment,  which  has  formed  during  the  fermentation, 
down  upon  the  cork,  the  workmen  turn  or  shake  each  bottle  daily 


1264  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


THE  XEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1265 

for  a  period  of  one  or  two  months.  After  a  while  the  sediment 
is  collected  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  while  the  body  of  the  wine- 
is  perfectly  dear.  Then  the  bottles  are  taken  to  the  finishing 
room,  cork  down,  and  the  wine  is  "disgorged."  This  process 
consists  in  freezing  the  small  quantity  of  wine  in  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  containing  the  sediment.  The  aura  fie  is  removed,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  forces  ont  the  cork  and  the  frozen  sediment. 


FIG.  419. — LABELLING,  CAPPING,  WRAPPING,  AND  BOXING  CHAMPAGNE  READY 

FOR  SHIPMENT 


The  wine  in  this  state  is  not  only  absolutely  dry,  or  free 
from  sugar,  but  it  is  harsh  or  brut,  to  use  the  French  term. 
To  please  the  taste  and  palate  of  consumers,  the  wine  is  softened 
and  sweetened  by  a  "  dosage,"  as  the  French  wine  makers  call  it; 
that  is,  by  the  addition  of  a  little  rock  candy  syrup  dissolved  in 
nhl  wine  or  brandy.  Thus,  champagne  is  described  as  "brut," 
"  extra  dry  "  or  "  sec,"  according  to  the  amount  of  the  dosage. 

The  final  operations  consist  in  putting  a  fine  cork  in  the  bottle, 
wiring  and  capping  it,  pasting  on  the  label,  and  casing  the  bottles 
in  boxes  ready  for  shipment. 


1266  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

THE  NEEDS  OF  THE  WINE  INDUSTRY 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  New  York  wine  industry  has  made 
sure  and  steady  progress.  The  industry  would  have  made  even 
greater  progress  if  the  conditions  had  been  more  favorable. 

Considering  the  extent  and  importance  of  viticulture  in  the 
state;  the  thousands  of  people  employed,  and  the  millions  of  dol- 
lars invested  in  vineyards,  buildings,  cellars  and  plants,  cooperage, 
stocks  of  wines  —  considering  these  and  other  things  that  might 
be  named,  New  York  should  do  more  to  encourage  her  grape  and 
wine-producing  industry.  Further  efforts  should  be  made  to  pro- 
mote this  branch  of  agriculture,  which  will  bring  increased  pros- 
perity and  wealth  to  the  state. 

Our  vineyards  have  been  greatly  assisted  by  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  which  has  helped  them  in  many  practical 
ways.  But  much  remains  to  be  done  for  the  New  York  grape  and 
wine  growers.  There  should  be  a  State  Yiticultural  Experiment 
Station.  There  are  now  two  viticultural  experiment  stations  in 
the  Eastern  States,  one  at  Willard,  N".  C.,  and  another  at  Yin< 
land,  N.  J. ;  while  there  are  fourteen  viticultural  stations  in 
California. 

Before  New  York  can  make  suitable  progress  in  her  viticul- 
tural industry,  a  viticultural  school  or  college  is  necessary.     In 
the  same  way  that  an  agricultural  college  is  indispensable  for  th( 
training  of  future  farmers,  so  the  viticultural  college  is  require< 
for  the  education  of  future  grape-growers  and  wine-makers.     If 
the  European  countries,  in  which  grape  growing  and  wine  making 
have  been  carried  on  for  centuries,  find  these  colleges  necessary, 
how  much  more  must  they  be  needed  in  this  country  where  th< 
wine  industry  is  comparatively  young  and  undeveloped. 

Xew  York  State  owes  it  to  her  people  and  to  herself  that 
viticultural  school  should  be  organized  in  the  near  future.     Sue! 
a  school  could  easily  be  included  in  the  agricultural  departmenl 
of  one  of  our  New  York  colleges  or  universities.     For  many  yea] 
past  grape  growing  and  wine  making  have  been  taught  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  which  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the 
only    university    in    the   United    States   that   has    a   viticulture 
department. 

Again,  the  consumption  of  our  pure,  wholesome  wines  is  n< 


THE  NEW  YORK  WINE  INDUSTRY  1267 

as  large  as  it  should  be.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  present  meth- 
ods of  distribution,  which  do  not  favor  the  sale  and  consumption 
of  wines.  Hence  our  present  excise  laws  should  be  amended  so 
that,  aside  from  saloons,  there  should  be  a  separate  license  for  the 
sale  of  wines  only.  Then  we  would  have  cafes  and  wine  shops 
such  as  are  found  in  France,  Germany  and  Italy  —  popular  and 
respectable  places  where  the  people  can  take  a  glass  of  wine,  or 
whatever  drink  they  wish,  where  friends  and  families  meet  and 
visit,  enjoy  the  music,  and  pass  a  pleasant  hour. 

Finally,  our  people  need  to  be  educated  as  to  the  food  value  of 
wine.  They  should  learn  to  use  wines  as  they  should  be  used, 
that  is,  daily  at  table  with  their  meals.  Wines  are  so  used  all 
over  continental  Europe  where  practically  everyone  —  men, 
women  and  children  —  drink  wine  as  freely  as  Americans  do 
coffee  and  tea,  and  there  you  find  the  most  temperate  people  in  the 
world.  While  there  may  be  and  is  intemperance  in  drinking  as 
well  as  in  eating,  yet  at  the  same  time  it  is  true  that,  when  wine 
is  properly  used  at  table  with  the  meal,  it  adds  to  the  pleasure  of 
life,  and,  as  has  been  truly  said,  whatever  adds  to  the  pleasure  of 
life  adds  to  its  resources  and  power. 
10 


THE  GRAPE  JUICE  INDUSTRY 
GERALD  FREY,  of  The  Grape  Belt,  Dunkirk,  X.  Y. 

Wherever  grapes  are  grown,  be  the  production  ever  so  small, 
there  it  will  be  found  that  a  large  portion  of  the  fruit  is  being 
pressed  for  its  juice.  It  may  be  wine  that  is  being  sought,  or 
perhaps  juice  free  from  fermentation;  but,  nevertheless,  grapes 
will  be  pressed  as  surely  as  there  are  vines  upon  which  to  bring 
the  fruit  into  being. 

New  York  ranks  second  among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  the 
quantity  of  grapes  produced,  being  exceeded  only  by  California. 
It  naturally  follows  that  the  Empire  State  is  equally  prominent 
in  the  matter  of  grape-juice  production,  both  fermented  and 
unfermented. 

In  the  early  days  the  grape  juice  produced  in  the  state  was 
naturally  small  in  amount,  and  was  consumed  almost  entirely  by 
the  families  making  it  or  in  connection  with  religious  services. 
As  years  went  by,  and  the  growing  of  grapes  became  a  busi- 
ness, the  making  of  wine  was  commercialized  and  increased  in 
amount  in  accordance  with  the  growing  demand  and  the  improved 
facilities  for  pressing  and  transportation.  When  methods  were 
finally  discovered  for  keeping  grape  juice  in  an  unfermented  state 
indefinitely,  the  growing  of  grapes  and  the  making  of  juice 
received  its  greatest  impetus. 

The  several  grape  belts  of  the  state  are  all  producers  of  wine 
and  unfermented  juice,  but  the  Chautauqua  belt,  lying  along  the 
shore  of  Lake  Erie  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  is  far  in  the 
lead  in  that  respect;  in  fact,  it  leads  the  world  in  the  production 
of  unfermented  grape  juice.  This  belt  comprises  about  37,000 
acres  of  vineyards,  and  in  normal  years  yields  from  75,000  to 
80,000  tons  of  grapes.  In  late  years  more  than  one-third  of  its 
total  crop  has  been  pressed  for  wine  and  unfermented  juice  within 
the  belt. 

The  Concord  is  the  king  of  grapes  in  the  Chautauqua  belt,  as  it 
is  also  in  the  other  grape-raising  sections  of  the  state;  and  it  is 

[1268] 


THE  GRAPK  ,Ii  ICK   TNOI-STRY 


the  Concord  that  is  u>ed  almost  wholly  in  the  making  of  unfer- 
mented  juice  an<l  very  hugely  in  the  production  of  wine. 
Although  other  varieties  of  grapes  are  used  I'm-  the  higher  grades 
of  wine,  the  Concord  forms  the  backbone  of  the  juice  industry, 
being  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  milking  of  Italian  or  sour 
wines  and  unfermented  grape  juice. 

During  the  last  ten  years,  including  the  season  of  1915,  the 
volume  of  grapes  turned  into  both  fermented  and  unfemiented 
grape  juice,  in  the  section  of  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt  lying 
wholly  within  the  state  of  Xew  York,  amounted  to  about  145,000 
tons.  Averaging  ten  tons  of  actual  fruit  to  the  car  and  fifty  cars 
lo  the  train,  it  was  equivalent  to  14,500  cars,  and  290  solid  trains. 
The  total  amount  paid  the  growers  for  this  great  amount  of  fruit 
by  the  makers  of  wine  and  unfermented  juice  was  approximately 
#  1,  !<)<),  ooo,  an  average  of  about  $440,000  a  year.  .  The  aggregate 
production  of  juice  in  that  period  and  from  that  tonnage  was 
22,825,075  gallons,  a  yearly  average  of  about  2,280,000  gallons. 

The  following  table  shows  the  combined  wine  and  unfermented 
grape-juice  product  of  the  Chautauqua  belt  during  the  last  decade: 
Year  Gallons 

1906  ....................................   1,637,000 

1907  ..........................  ..........   1,770,000 

1908  ....................................   1,813,500 

1  90J)  ....................................   2,035,000 

1910  ....................................  *2,100,000 

1911  ....................................   2,500,500 

1912  ....................................  2,778,000 

1913  ....................................  2,8<)5,7<80 

1914  ....................................   3,790,420 

1915  .  ........   1,495,875 


Total    22,825,075 

During  the  five-year  period  immediately  preceding  1900,  the 
total  production  was  7,118,300,  divided  by  years  as  follows: 
Year  Gallons 

1901  1,718,100 

1902  1,588,700 

1903  1,111,500 

1904  1,845,000 

1905 850,000 


Total 7,113,300 

The  great  increase  in  the  amount  of  juice  produced   in  the 
Chautauqua  grape  belt  in  recent  years  is  made  quickly  apparent 


*  Estimated. 


1270  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

by  a  reference  to  the  foregoing  statistics.  The  production  in  the 
last  five  years  was  13,460,575  gallons,  an  increase  of  4,096,075 
gallons  over  the  five-year  period  immediately  preceding,  and  of 
6,347,275  gallons  over  the  corresponding  stretch  of  years 
beginning  with  1901. 

Likewise,  the  juice  output  for  the  1906-1910  period  registered 
a  gain  of  2,251,200  gallons  over  the  1901-1905  period. 

These  comparisons  plainly  indicate  that  there  was  a  substan- 
tially steady  increase  each  season  from  1905  up  to  and  including 
1914.  In  1915  the  juice  production  showed  a  dropping  off  of 
about  2,300,000  gallons  compared  with  that  of  the  last  preceding 
season.  It  was  the  smallest  production  in  the  last  ten  years,  due 
to  a  heavy  falling  oif  in  consumption  during  the  closing  months 
of  1914  and  the  greater  part  of  1915  by  reason  of  industrial 
depression,  unfavorable  weather,  curtailment  of  foreign  trade, 
and  other  causes,  and  resulting  in  the  juice-makers  having  left  on 
their  hands  a  large  surplus  of  juice  products. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  history  of  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt, 
the  juice  produced  was  confined  almost  wholly  to  wine-making. 
Then  came  the  making  of  unfermented  juice.  As  the  demand 
for  the  non-alcoholic  juice  increased  with  leaps  and  bounds,  the 
pioneer  makers  of  this  product  proceeded  to  enlarge  their  output, 
and  new  companies  embarked  in  the  business.  In  time,  grape 
juice  far  outstripped  wine  in  the  amount  produced,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  comparative  table  covering  the  last  five  seasons: 

GALLONS  PRODUCED 


Year 
1911 

Wine 
770,000 

Unfermented  Juice 

1,730,500 

1912 

871  800 

1,906,836 

1913  

.    .  .                          226,240 

2,669,540 

1914  

633,750 

3,156,670 

1915  

386,250 

1,109,625 

Totals    2,888,040  10,573,171 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  production  of  unfermented  juice  in 
the  Chautauqua  belt  during  the  last  five-year  period  was  nearly 
four  times  as  great  as  the  output  of  fermented  juice  or  wine. 
Moreover,  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the  production  of  wine  fluc- 
tuated greatly  in  the  first  four  years  of  that  period  (1915  not 
being  considered,  because  of  its  abnormal  condition),  the  output 


THE  GRAPE  JUICE  INDUSTRY  1271 

of  unfermented  juice  enjoyed  a  steady  advance  each  year,  and 
culminated  in  the  record  production  in  1914  of  about  1,400,000 
pi  11  mis  over  that  of  1911.  The  output  of  unfermented  juice  in 
1914  was  nearly  five  times  as  great  as  the  amount  of  wine  pro- 
duced in  the  belt  that  same  season. 

In  fifteen  years  the  making  of  unfermented  juice  has  grown 
from  an  almost  negligible  factor  to  a  commanding  position  in 
the  Chautauqua  belt.  Of  still  greater  moment,  it  has  bridged 
over  the  crisis  arising  from  the  big  falling  off  in  the  demand  for 
small-basket  or  table  grapes,  and  has  been  the  determining 
influence  in  the  maintenance  of  good  prices  to  the  growers. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN 
NEW    YORK 

F.  E.  GLAD  WIN 

Associate  Agriculturist,  Vineyard  Laboratory  of  the  Xew  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Fredonia,  X.  Y. 

"A  free  loose  earth  is  what  the  vines  demand, 

Where  wind  and  frost  have  help'd  the  laborer's  hand." 

VERGIL 

Commercial  grape  growing  in  Xew  York  is  limited  to  four 
well-defined  sections  of  the  state.  Arranged  in  order  of  their 
importance  they  are:  the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  belt,  the  Central 
Lakes  district,  the  Hudson  Valley,  and  the  Xiagara  plateau.  The 
four  areas  present  widely  diverse  conditions  of  climate  and 
topography.  This  diversity  is  reflected  in  the  varieties  grown, 
and  consequently  the  period  of  maturity  for  the  same  variety  in 
each  district  presents  a  succession  of  season. 

Diversity  of  Locations 

In  the  four  districts  are  vineyards  located  on  level  lands,  such 
as  the  Xiagara  plateau,  on  level  to  gentle-sloping  land,  as  in  the 
Chautauqua  and  Erie  helt,  on  the  somewhat  more  elevated  and 
abrupt  vineyards  of  the  Hudson  Valley,  and  finally  on  the  steep 
hillsides  of  the  Central  Lakes  region.  These  differences  in  topog- 
raphy would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  grape  can  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully under  variable  conditions,  but  the  ideal  location  of  the 
vineyard  is  on  easy-sloping  land.  Many  fine  vineyards  are  located 
on  steep  hillsides,  yet  liability  to  washing  and  difficulty  of  tillage 
tend  to  render  such  vineyards  less  productive  and  shorter-lived. 
The  shores  about  the  large  lakes  appear  to  be  especially  well 
adapted  to  grapes  —  these  districts  in  some  cases  extending 
several  miles  back  from  the  water.  Very  rarely  can  grapes  be 
grown  in  our  northernmost  latitudes  without  the  increased  labor 
and  cost  of  covering  in  winter,  except  under  the  tempering  in- 
fluence of  large  bodies  of  water.  Low  situations  that  prevent  a 
free  circulation  of  air,  such  as  river  bottoms  and  the  basins  of 
small  lakes,  should  be  avoided.  These  locations  are  more  liable 

[1272] 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1273 

to  unseasonable  frosts,   and   their  poor  air  drainage  also  favors 
powdery  mildew  and  black  rot. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  rows  should  run.  In  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt  the  prevail- 
ing direction  is  north  and  south,  where  the  slope  is  not  too  steep. 
This  is  ideal  for  the  Chautauqua  section,  as  the  morning  sun 
rapidly  dries  the  dew  on  the  cast  side  of  the  rows  while  the  pre- 
vailing wind  dries  the  west.  The  constant  west  and  northwest 
wind  is  pn>l>;tl>ly  the  chief  reason  why  this  district  is  so  free  from 
black  rot.  Where  the  slope  is  steep,  the  rows  must  necessarily  run 
at  right  angles  to  it.  The  foregoing  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  the  grape  cannot  be  grown  on  level  land,  for  such  is  not  the 
case.  Many  fine  vigorous  vineyards  are  so  situated,  but  as  a  rule 
sloping  land  has  the  better  natural  surface  drainage.  The  region 
near  a  large  body  of  water  is  usually  rolling  or  sloping,  and  more 
vineyards  are,  therefore,  found  on  slopes  than  on  level  land. 


FIG.  420. — A  HILLSIDE  VINEYARD  IN  CENTRAL  NEW  YORK 

ESSENTIAL   SOIL    CONDITIONS 

Experience  shows  that  grapes  may  be  grown  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils.  Productive  vineyards  are  found  on  loam,  sandy  loam, 
gravel,  gravelly  loam,  heavy  clay,  silt  loam,  and  clay  loam.  It 
is  not  so  much  a  question  of  the  kind  of  soil,  but  the  condition 


1274 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1275 

of  that  soil  as  regards  texture,  drainage,  and  fertility,  and  the 
possibility  of  washing.  It  is  true  that  certain  varieties  exhibit 
a  soil  preference,  but  most  commercial  varieties  will  thrive  on  the 
many  types. 

Drainage 

The  first  essential  is  that  there  be  good  drainage.  The  culti- 
vated grape  does  not  thrive  with  its  roots  continuously  in  water, 
although  it  may  be  more  tolerant  in  this  respect  than  most  fruits. 
A  natural  conclusion  prevails  that  sloping  land  is  well  drained; 
yet  this  is  not  always  true.  Especially  if  the  soil  is  shallow,  an 
impervious  rock,  or  hardpan,  below  may  form  basins,  or  "  kettle 
holes/'  in  which  water  is  retained;  the  soil  becomes  saturated 
since  the  water  must  rise  to  the  surface  to  escape.  Under  such 
conditions,  a  slope  is  just  as  water-logged  and  as  poorly  drained 
as  a  lowland  area.  If  the  drainage  is  not  good,  the  field  should 
be  tiled. 

Preparation    of  Soil 

In  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  setting  to  a  vineyard,  the 
grower  should  exercise  the  greatest  care.  It  is  poor  policy  to  set 
vines  in  carelessly  prepared  soil.  A  little  care  before  setting  will 
p;iy  for  itself  many  times  over.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  poor 
practice  to  set  to  grapes  land  that  has  just  been  in  vineyard,  with- 
out putting  under  a  good  green  manure  two  or  three  times  in  suc- 
cession before  planting.  When  it  is  desired  to  reset  land  where 
vineyards  have  been  pulled  out,  hairy  vetch  or  mammoth  clover 
in  August  should  be  sown  and  plowed  under  just  before  blossom- 
ing time  in  the  following  summer.  If  in  the  following  spring 
the  land  is  again  seeded  to  vetch  or  clover  and  plowed  under,  it 
will  then  be  ready  for  planting.  This  is  likewise  an  excellent 
practice  preparatory  to  the  setting  of  a  new  vineyard.  Deep 
plowing,  thorough  dragging,  and  rolling,  combined  with  green 
manuring,  puts  the  soil  in  the  best  of  tilth  and,  once  in  good  tilth, 
it  is  far  easier  to  maintain  than  without  such  thorough  prepara- 
tion. 

In  fitting  the  field,  preparatory  to  planting,  plow  as  deeply  as 
possible,  with  a  two-horse  plow,  into  lands  eight  or  nine  feet  wide, 
the  width  depending  on  the  distance  apart  which  the  rows  are 
to  be.  This  will  leave  dead  furrows  eight  or  nine  feet  apart. 


1276  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Then  with  a  subsoil  plow,  go  twice  through  each  dead  furrow. 
Much  of  the  soil  loosened  by  the  subsoiler  can  now  be  thrown  out 
by  again  going  through  each  furrow  with  the  two-horse  plow, 
once  each  way.  This  insures  deep  planting  and  greatly  increases 
the  area  for  root  growth. 

PLAXTIXG    OF    VIXEfARD 

Selection  of  Vines 

The  selection  of  vines  is  an  important  part  in  the  foundation 
of  the  vineyard.  Too  often  it  is  neglected  altogether,  by  reason 
of  the  inability  of  the  prospective  grower  to  judge  vines,  or  else 
when  poor  vines  are  purchased  knowingly  because  they  are  cheap. 
A  poor  vine  purchased  because  of  cheapness  is  a  poor  investment. 
A  vineyard  started  with  poor  vines  is  handicapped  at  the  start 
and  rarely,  if  ever,  overcomes  the  burden  even  with  good  care 
later  on. 

First-grade,  one-year  vines  are  to  be  preferred  to  two-year  ones. 
As  a  rule  they  are  much  better,  although  to  the  amateur  a  large 
vine  promises  more.  Very  frequently  two-year  vines  represent 
the  poorer  one-year  vines  of  the  previous  season  transplanted  and 
allowed  to  grow  in  the  nursery  row  another  season.  Most  com- 
mercial vineyards  are  set  with  one-year  vines,  while  the  amateur 
usually  sets  the  two-year.  There  are  doubtless  some  good  two- 
year  vines,  but  they  are  the  exception. 

Laying  Out  tJie  Vineyard 

There  are  many  recommendations  as  to  the  distances  apart 
for  rows  and  vines.  Some  of  the  older  vineyards  are  set  ten  by 
ten  feet,  but  the  prevailing  distances  are  for  rows  nine  feet  apart 
and  for  vines  eight  feet.  Eight  by  eight  feet  appears  to  be  most 
suitable,  as  an  eight-foot  row  can  be  plowed  most  satisfactorily 
with  a  three-gang  plow  by  going  twice  through  the  row,  and  subse- 
quent tillage  with  spring-tooth  harrow  and  disk  may  be  economi- 
cally done.  Many  of  the  newer  vineyards  are  being  set  eight  by 
six  feet  and  some  even  eight  by  four  feet.  In  this  instance  the 
grower  plans  to  take  out  every  other  vine  as  soon  as  two  or  three 
crops  have  been  harvested;  or  else  leave  and  put  up  but  half  the 


('l    I.Ti   KAI.    M  KTlInhS    KoU    T  1  1  K   (JlfAI'K    IN     \K\V    VoRK        1277 

wood  for  each  vine  1hal  is  usually  put  up  when  they  are  set  eight 
by  eight  feet.  Observation  has  shown,  however,  that  orcliardists 
who  have  set  trees  closer  than  they  should  have  been,  intending 
to  remove  alternate  trees  when  they  arrived  at  maturity,  find  it 
exceedingly  heart-breaking  to  remove  a  healthy  bearing  tree;  this 
no  doubt  will  hold  with  the  vineyardist  who  is  setting  eight  by 
four  feet  with  the  intention  of  pulling  out  each  alternate  vine. 


lic  Vin<es 

After  the  field  has  been  plowed  in  lands  of  the  desired  width, 
stakes  are  now  set  in  the  furrow  at  the  interval  decided  on  for 
the  vines  in  the  row.  These  should  be  lined  carefully  each  way. 
Then  with  the  hoe  and  shovel,  the  hole  is  dug  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow  with  the  stake  as  the  center.  This  can  be  readily 
done,  as  the  plowing  has  loosened  the  soil.  There  is  not  much 
danger  of  setting  the  vine  too  deep,  but  rather  at  the  other  ex- 
treme is  the  error  usually  made.  The  hole  should  be  dug  deep 
enough  so  that  the  bottom  may  be  filled  in  with  surface  soil,  leav- 
ing a  mound  in  the  center  of  the  hole  on  which  the  base  of  the 
vine  is  to  rest.  It  should  be  large  enough  to  accomodate  the 
roots  without  crowding.  The  roots  are  cut  back  more  or  less 
severely,  depending  on  their  growth  and  condition,  but  generally 
to  about  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  base.  The  top  is  cut  back 
to  two  or  three  buds.  The  roots  are  then  spread  out  in  the  hole 
so  that  they  are  equally  disposed  in  all  directions,  the  base  of 
the  vine  resting  on  the  mound,  with  the  roots  sloping  downward 
at  an  angle;  a  small  quantity  of  the  surface  soil  is  then  tamped 
firmly  upon  them.  More  soil  is  added  and  firmly  packed  until 
the  hole  is  nearly  filled,  but  the  surface  soil  is  left  loose.  The  vine 
should  now  be  a  sufficient  depth  so  that  the  two  or  three  buds 
of  the  top  are  just  above  the  ground.  In  the  following  winter  or 
spring  the  growth  of  the  previous  season  is  cut  back  to  two  buds, 
t'«»r  we  should  aim  to  obtain  a  well-established  root  system  above 
all  else.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  we  find  our  vine 
apparently  in  the  same  condition  as  in  the  year  of  setting.  In 
the  second  spring  one  wire  of  the  trellis  should  be  put  up,  not  to 
fix  the  future  training,  but  to  get  the  canes  out  of  the  way  for 
cultivation. 


1278  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1279 

The  Trellis 

Chestnut  or  locust  posts  are  preferred  for  the  trellis.  These 
should  be  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  length,  and  the  heaviest  should 
be  selected  for  end  posts.  After  sharpening  to  a  tapering  point 
they  can  be  driven  into  holes  made  with  a  crowbar.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  place  them  so  that  they  will  line  perfectly  on  the  side 
toward  the  prevailing  wind,  on  which  side  the  wire  is  fastened. 
A  post  to  every  three  vines  is  sufficient.  The  end  posts  should 
be  driven  to  a  depth  of  from  22  to  24  inches  and  braced  by  a 
two  by  four  or  four  by  four,  notched  to  fit  the  post  half  way  from 
tlio  ground  to  the  top  and  extending  obliquely  to  the  ground 
where  it  is  held  by  a  four  by  four  stake.  The  wire  should  be 
No.  9  or  No.  10,  the  number  and  height  of  the  wires  depending 
on  the  vigor  of  the  vines  and  the  system  of  training  used.  The 
wires  are  fastened  to  the  posts  by  ordinary  fence  staples,  enough 
space  being  left  in  the  staple  to  permit  loosening  or  tightening. 
The  wire  is  fastened  to  the  end  post  by  winding  it  once  around 
the  post  and  then  around  itself. 

PRUNING    THE     GRAPE 

The  grape  is  pruned,  first,  to  limit  the  amount  of  wood,  thus 
preventing  overbearing,  and  thereby  producing  fruit  of  quality 
without  sacrificing  the  vigor  of  the  vine;  secondly,  to  keep  the 
vine  within  bounds,  thus  economizing  the  land  and  facilitating 
cultivation,  spraying,  and  harvesting.  In  pruning  grapes,  as  in 
pruning  any  other  fruit-bearing  plant,  the  relationship  of  the 
wood  to  fruit  bearing  must  be  thoroughly  understood.*  The  suc- 
cessful vineyardist  must  ever  keep  in  mind  that  the  fruit  of  the 
present  year  is  borne  at  the  base  of  shoots  of  this  year,  which 
spring  from  the  canes  of  last  year,  or  from  the  older  wood. 
That  there  may  be  produced  fruit  of  the  best  size  and  flavor,  it  is 
obvious  that  a  vine  must  be  limited  in  production.  Judicious 
pruning  aims  to  accomplish  this.  A  good  average  yield  for  a 
Concord  vine  would  be  fifteen  pounds,  although  certain  vines 
have  averaged  much  more.  In  order  to  produce  this  amount,  we 
estimate  that  from  forty  to  sixty  clusters  are  required.  Since 


*  See  article  on  Pruning  by  E.  van  Alstyne,  Part  I,  page  830, 


1280  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK   STATE 

eacK  shoot  bears  from  two  to  three  clusters,  usually  two,  twrenty 
to  thirty  buds  of  the  previous  year's  growth  must  therefore  be 
left.  This  can  be  done  by  leaving  a  sufficient  number  of  canes  or 
•spurs  carrying  the  number  of  buds  already  mentioned.  Good 
pruning  then  consists  of  cutting  out  all  the  wood  except  canes 
or  spurs  sufficient  to  furnish  the  shoots  for  the  desired  number 
of  clusters. 

Time  for  Pruning 

The  time  for  pruning  the  grape  varies  somewhat  with  different 
growers  and  various  localities ;  as  a  rule,  it  may  be  begun  as  soon 
as  the  vine  has  dropped  its  leaves  in  fall.  Any  time  after  this 
to  a  period  just  before  the  swelling  of  the  buds  in  spring,  may 
be  given  to  this  wTork.  Some  vineyardists  even  prune  after  a 
vigorous  flow  of  sap  has  begun,  asserting  there  is  no  serious  injury 
therefrom.  There  is  a  considerable  sap  flow  in  the  vine  even  before 
weather  conditions  appear  favorable  for  it,  so  that  it  is  best  not 
to  delay  the  operation  too  late.  In  certain  sections  where  grapes 
are  grown  commercially,  in  order  to  prevent  freezing,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  cover  the  vines  in  position  or  to  lay  them  on  the  ground 
for  covering  because  of  severe  winter  wreather.  In  order  to  les- 
sen the  area  to  be  covered,  it  is  good  practice  to  prune  to  some 
extent  before  covering.  In  doing  this,  it  is  advisable  to  leave 
more  wood  than  is  actually  needed  for  next  year's  crop,  as  there 
is  danger  that  some  of  the  buds  may  be  broken  off  or  the  canes 
otherwise  injured  from  this  covering.  There  is  an  old  saying, 
a  Xever  prune  wyhen  the  wood  is  actually  frozen,"  for  which  some 
foundation  can  be  found,  since  canes  are  much  more  liable  to 
breakage  if  handled  when  frozen.  Other  than  this,  there  is  no 
reason  why  pruning  should  not  be  done  at  any  time  during  the 
dormant  season.  In  the  Chautauqua  belt,  pruning  begins  with  the 
falling  of  the  leaves  and  continues  during  the  winter  until  just 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell.  The  milder  days,  of  course,  are 
preferred. 

Types  of  Pruning 

Judicious  pruning  of  the  grape  is  more  essential  than  is  train- 
ing to  system,  but  there  necessarily  exists  a  relationship  between 
pruning  and  training.  If  the  condition  of  the  vine  permits,  it 
may  be  pruned;  but,  in  many  instances,  its  vigor,  as  shown  by 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  ix  XKW  YORK     1281 


1282  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

the  wood  produced,  will  not  allow  of  the  pruning  necessary  to 
train  to  a  desired  system.  The  subject  of  pruning  and  train- 
ing therefore  becomes  largely  a  matter  of  judgment  with  the  vine- 
yardist.  He  alone  is  best  able  to  judge  how  much  pruning  each 
vine  in  his  vineyard  should  receive,  and  the  system  of  training  by 
which  the  wood  can  be  put  up  to  the  best  advantage.  If  the  vines 
are  vigorous,  it  becomes  optional  with  the  grower,  although  there 
is  no  doubt  that  certain  varieties  do  best  when  trained  to  a  cer- 
tain type.  It  is  generally  agreed,  for  example,  that  strong- 
growing  varieties,  such  as  Concord  and  ISTiagara,  do  best  when 
trained  to  the  drooping  type;  while  the  weaker  and  slower-grow- 
ing, .such  as  the  Delaware,  can  be  best  trained  to  some  form  of  the 
upright  type,  other  conditions  being  the  same.  Perhaps  it  should 
be  stated  that  the  terms  applied  to  these  various  types  refer  to 
the  position  the  bearing  shoots  assume,  rather  than  to  that  of 
the  canes.  The  drooping  type  and  the  upright  are  commonly 
used  today,  while  the  horizontal  has  generally  been  discarded. 

Drooping  Type.  The  Kniffen  system  and  its  modifications  are 
representative  of  this  mode  of  training.  The  growing  shoots  of 
the  season  are  not  tied,  but  are  allowed  to  hang  free.  In  this 
respect,  it  is  economical,  since  no  summer  tying  is  necessary; 
while  the  pendant  position  so  places  the  clusters  that  there  is 
less  liability  to  sun  scald. 

Single-stem,  Fou^cane  Kniffen.  In  this  system  a  single  trunk 
or  stem  is  carried  directly  to  the  top  of  the  trellis.  With  strong 
vines  this  can  be  done  in  the  third  year  after  setting;  but  with 
weak  ones,  a  year  later  is  better.  One  wire  is  placed  at  a 
height  of  from  five  and  one-half  to  six  feet  above  the  ground, 
the  lower  wire  being  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  above 
the  ground.  Two  canes  are  taken  from  side  spurs  on  the  trunk 
at  the  level  of  each  wire,  or  just  below  the  wire.  The  two  upper 
canes  are  left  longer  than  are  the  two  on  the  lower  wire,  since, 
if  this  is  not  done,  there  is  a  tendency  for  rank,  long- jointed 
canes,  growth  being  most  vigorous  at  the  extremity  of  the  stem. 
The  trunk  or  stem  is  tied  firmly  to  each  wire  and  is  kept  in  this 
position  permanently.  Each  spring  the  four  canes  left  after 
pruning  are  tied  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  stem  along  each 
wire. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1283 

In  the  following  year  pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  all 
but  four  canes  that  have  developed  from  the  spurs  or  canes  of 
the  previous  year,  and  selecting  those  that  are  as  close  as  pos- 
sible to  the  main  trunk.  Thus  the  bearing  wood  is  renewed 

vcarly. 


FIG.  424. —  THE  SINGLE-STEM  KNIFFEN  SYSTEM  OF  TRAINING 

As  the  spurs  will  lengthen  rapidly,  it  will  therefore  become 
necessary  to  remove  them  entirely  every  five  or  six  years.  This 
can  be  done  by  selecting  well-placed  shoots  that  arise  from  time 
to  time  from  the  trunk  or  stem. 

Two-stem,  Four-cane  Kniffen.  This  is  very  similar  to  the 
type  just  described,  the  only  difference  being  that  two  permanent 
trunks  are  brought  up  from  the  ground.  One  of  these  is  carried 
to  the  height  of  the  lower  wire,  where  two  canes  are  taken  off 
from  spurs  and  tied  to  the  wires  as  before;  the  other  stem  is 
carried  to  the  top  wire  and  two  canes  are  taken  from  it.  Some 
vineyardists  prefer  to  tie  the  two  stems  together  in  order  to  make 
tliem  stiffer.  In  using  this  method,  the  canes  taken  from  each 
stem  may  have  the  same  number  of  "buds,  each  stem  being  con- 
sidered as  a  distinct  vine. 


1284  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  425. —  THE  TWO-STEM  KXIFFEX  SYSTEM 

Y-stem  Kniffen.  This  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  that,  in- 
stead of  the  two  stems  being  brought  up  from  the  ground,  one  is 
taken  from  the  other  at  a  distance  a  little  below  the  lower  wire, 
is  carried  to  the  wire  at  the  top,  and  there  tied.  This  makes  a 
Y-shaped  joint,  as  indicated  in  the  name.  The  number  of  canes 
.laid  down  and  subsequent  treatment  are  the  same  as  in  the  others 
so  far  described. 

Umbrella  Kniffen.  The  chief  differences  between  this  system 
and  the  true  Kniffen  are  the  use  of  two  canes  instead  of  four, 
and  the  somewhat  changed  position  given  them.  Two  canes  of 
from  eight  to  twenty  buds  are  taken  from  spurs  on  the  trunk  at 
the  top  wire.  These  are  tied  to  the  right  and  left  along  the  wire 
and  then  bent  down  hooplike  to  the  lower  wire  and  secured.  The 
canes  are  renewed  yearly  from  spurs.  This  method  is  now  much 
followed  in  the  grape-growing  belt  in  Pennsylvania. 

One-wire  Kniffen,  or  Low  Kniffen.  This  system  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  umbrella,  but  differs  in  that  the  trellis  has  only  one 
wire,  three  to  four  feet  above  the  ground.  The  single  stem  ex- 
tends up  to  the  wire,  where  two  canes  of  from  ten  to  twelve  buda 
are  taken  off  and  laid  down  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  stem. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  ix  XKW  YORK     1285 

The  renewal  each  year,  as  in  the  case  of  all  tlie  others  so  far  dis- 
cussed, is  from  spurs.  High  (juality  of  fruit  and  cheapness  of 
trellis  commend  this  system. 

There  are  other  modifications  of  the  drooping  type  of  training. 
but  for  one  reason  or  another  they  have  been  dropped  in  com- 
mercial vineyards.  The  commoner  are  the  six-  and  eight-cane 
Kniffen,  in  which  three  and  four  wires  are  required  respectively, 
making  an  expensive  trellis  necessary. 


FIG.  426. —  THE  UMBRELLA  SYSTEM 

The  Upright  Type.  This  type  of  training  carries  two  or  more 
canes  along  a  horizontal  wire,  or  obliquely  across  the  wires.  The 
two  methods  of  renewal  in  this  type  naturally  divide  into  two 
groups,  namely,  high  renewal,  or  cane  renewal,  and  spur  renewal. 

High  Renewal.  The  high  renewal  system  is  in  general  use  in 
many  ^rape-growing  sections,  having  much  to  commend  it.  The 
trellis  is  made  with  fwo,  three,  or  more  wires,  but  usually  three. 
The  lowest  wire  is  placed  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  above 
the  ground,  while  the  second  and  third  are  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  apart  respectively.  The  main  trunk  or  stem  of 


1286 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


the  vine  is  carried  up  to  or  just  below  the  first  wire  and  two 
canes,  each  bearing  from  six  to  ten  buds,  are  taken  off,  preferably 
a  little  below  the  level  of  the  wire.  One  is  tied  to  the  right  and 
the  other  to  the  left.  The  bearing  shoots  that  grow  from  the 
buds  on  these  canes  are  tied  to  the  second  wire  when  they  have 
reached  a  sufficient  length,  and  to  the  third  as  soon  as  growth 
will  permit.  If  they  project  beyond  the  upper  wire,  they  are 
sometimes  cut  off  or  pinched  back. 


FIG.  427. —  THE  HIGH  RENEWAL  TYPE 

At  the  beginning  of  the  next  year  the  vine  should  again  be  cut 
back  to  two  canes  that  have  grown  from  the  shoots  of  the  previous 
year,  or  from  spurs,  this  cutting  being  as  close  to  the  head  of  the 
vine  as  possible.  Xear  the  base  of  each  of  these  canes,  but  on 
older  wood  at  the  head  of  the  stem,  short  spurs  carrying  two  or 
three  buds  are  maintained,  from  which  shoots  develop  that  in  turn 
are  used  to  furnish  the  fruiting  canes  of  the  following  year.  Thus, 
the  spurs  are  the  means  of  renewing  the  fruiting  wood.  From 
the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  old  wood  retained 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  while  the  labor  of  tying  is  greatly 
increased. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1287 


FIG.  428. —  DELA WARES  ON  KEUKA  LAKE  TRAINED  TO  HIGH  RENEWAL 


FIG.  429. —  CATAWBA  ON  KEUKA  LAKE,  TRAINED  TO  HIGH  RENEWAL 


1288  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ^EW  YORK  STATE 

Horizontal  Arm  Spur.  The  trellis  for  this  system  is  pracy 
tically  the  same  as  for  the  high  renewal.  Two  canes  are  laid 
down,  one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to!  the  left  of  the  trunk, 
which  has  been  brought  to  the  height  of  the  lower  wire  or  just 
below  it.  The  number  of  buds  left  on  each  cane  will  depend  on 
the  vigor  of  the  vine  and  the  availability  of  the  space  between 
the  adjoining  vines.  These  canes  are  to  become  permanent  arms, 
doing  service  for  several  years.  The  shoots  that  develop  from 
buds  on  these  canes  in  the  present  year  are  cut  back  to  two  buds 
in  fall  or  winter.  Two  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  from  each  of 
these  spurs  and  are  tied  to  the  upper  wires.  In  the  fall  one  cane 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  spur  is  cut  entirely  away,  and  the 
other  cane  is  cut  to  two  buds  as  before.  Then,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next  season,  there  are  as  in  the  previous  year,  two  shoots 
springing  from  a  spur  on  a  permanent  arm.  The  spurs  will 
lengthen  fast  and  become  crooked ;  hence,  it  is  the  best  practice 
to  cut  them  entirely '  away  every  few  years  and  to  grow  others 
from  shoots  that  arise  directly  from  the  arms.  The  spurs  may 
be  distributed  from  ten  to  twenty  inches  apart  on  the  arms. 

Chautauqua  System.  This  system  is  but  a  modification  of 
the  horizontal-arm-spur  system  just  described,  except  that  nine  to 
twelve  bud  canes  carry  the  fruit  instead  of  short  spurs.  Perma- 
nent arms  are  used  to  support  the  canes,  which  are  tied  yearly  to  a 
two-  o'r  three-wire  trellis.  These  canes  may  be  tied  perpendicu- 
larly or  obliquely.  If  two  wires  are  used,  they  are  usually 
thirty-four  inches  apart ;  if  three,  about  twenty  inches  apart.  In 
the  following  year  the  canes  for  tying  develop  either  directly 
from  the  old  wood  of  the  arms,  from  spurs  on  the  arms,  or  from 
the  basal  buds  of  the  past  season's  canes.  This  system  has  a 
strong  hold  on  the  vineyardists  of  Chauataqua  County,  for  the 
principal  grape,  the  Concord,  adapts  itself  fairly  well  to1  training 
according  to  this  system.  The  old  arms  should  be  renewed  fre- 
quently, since  in  time  they  become  crooked  and  gnarled,  the 
extremities  often  being  a  great  distance  from  the  head  of  the  vine. 

Fan  System.  While  still  used  in  certain  localities,  the  fan 
system  of  training  is  not  nearly  so  popular  as  it  was  a  few  years 
since.  Here  the  renewals  are  obtained  yearly  from  spurs  near 
the  ground ;  hence,  very  little  old  wood  is  retained.  One  serious 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAI-K  i.\   Xi-;\v   YORK      1289 

abjection  to  this  >ystem  is  the  tendency  of  the  -purs  to  lengthen, 
become  crooked,  and  in  some  cases  to  reach  inidway  between  the 
first  and  second  wires.  The  shoots  are  tied  to  the  wires  in  the 
direction  that  they  naturally  assume.  This  may  be  vertically. 
horizontally,  or  obliquely  across  the  wire.  In  regions  where 
grapes  nre  »ro\vn  for  home  use  and  the  climate  necessitates  win- 
ter protection,  this  system  is  used  to  advantage.  It  is  also  used 
!•>  a  considerable  extent  in  many  of  the  commercial  rj.neyards  of 
the  Central  \e\v  York  lake  region. 


FIG.  430. —  THE   CHAUTAUQUA    SYSTEM 

The  Horizontal  Type.  This  type  is  little  used  at  present,  as 
the  cost  of  the  trellis  and  the  labor  of  tying  render  it  undesirable. 
One  cane  arising  from  a  trunk  one  or  two  feet  high  is  left  after 
each  pruning.  This  is  carried  perpendicularly  to  the  top  wire, 
and  the  shoots  arising  therefrom  are  tied  to  slats  or  wires  extend- 
ing vertically  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  wire  or  the  trellis.  The 
one  advantage  of  the  system  is  the  ease  of  control  for  varieties 
that  are  likely  to  overbear  or  those  that  are  already  weakened 
and  require  careful  nursing. 


1290 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


The  choice  of  a  system  of  training  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste 
with  the  vineyardist.  One  type  may  be  suited  for  his  conditions, 
or  at  least  may  appeal  to  him  as  the  ideal.  His  neighbor  may 
be  equally  positive  that  a  different  system  is  better,  and  each 
may  be  right.  That  system  should  be  selected  which  is  best  suited 
for  the  variety  to  be  grown,  and  a  knowledge  of  varietal  habits 
is  therefore  indispensable.  In  commercial  vineyards  the  expense 
of  trellis  and  of  pruning  and  tying  becomes  an  important  factor. 
To  have  merit,  any  system  must  be  so  adaptable  to  the  variety  or 
the  vine  that  it  will  conserve  the  best  energies  of  the  vine  from 
year  to  year.  Likewise,  a  system  that  permits  of  overbearing  in 
one  year,  at  the  sacrifice  of  vine  energy  and  wood  for  the  succeed- 
ing year,  should  be  remodeled  or  dropped  altogether.  Of  course, 
it  is  possible  to  so  use  any  system  of  training  that  it  may  become 
detrimental  to  the  vine,  but  certain  systems  of  training  permit  of 
this  to  a  greater  degree  than  others. 


FIG.  431. —  EARLY  SUMMER  TILLAGE 


It  is  generally  conceded  by  vineyardists  who  have  tried  various 
systems  that  the  Kniffen  methods  give  better  vines  and  fruit 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1291 

under  adverse  conditions,  such  as  lack  of  tillage  and  spraying, 
than  do  others.  This  statement,  however,  should  not  he  inter- 
preted to  permit  of  the  neglect  of  the  vineyard,  for  tillage, 
spraying,  and  fertilizing  will  give  returns  proportionate  to 
thoroughness.* 

TILTH    AND    TILLAGE 

Frequent  and  thorough  tillage  is  essential  for  the  vineyard. 
The  first  spring  operation  is  the  plowing  under  of  cover  crops 
with  the  single-horse  and  gang  plow.  This  can  be  done  as  soon 


FIG.  432. —  HORSE-HOEING  AWAY   FROM   THE  VINES 

as  weather  and  soil  conditions  will  permit.  A  single  furrow  is 
plowed  up  to  or  away  from  the  vines  on  either  side  of  the  row; 
this  operation  is  followed  by  the  use  of  the  gang  plow  and,  if  the 
cover  crop  is  particularly  heavy,  with  the  disk  harrow.  The 
three-gang  plow  will  cover  an  eight-and-one-half-foot  row  in  one 
bout.  If  no  cover  crop  was  sown,  the  disk  may  replace  the  plow. 
Subsequent  cultivation  is  done  with  the  grape  hoe,  hand  hoe, 


*  For  grafting  of  grapevines  see  Part  I,  page  965. 


1292 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


spring-tooth  harrow,  and  disk.  Just  about  the  time  that  the 
rootworm  has  transformed  to  the  pupa  or  turtle  stage  and  has 
penetrated  the  upper  layer  of  the  soil,  ready  to  emerge  as  an  adult 
and  lay  its  egg  on  the  canes,  the  grape  hoe  is  used  to  throw  a 
furrow  away  from  the  hills.  This  exposes  the  delicate  pupal 
stage  of  the  insect  to  the  sun  and  other  climatic  conditions  which 
are  very  destructive  to  it.  Cultivate  at  regular  intervals  of  ten 


FIG.  433. — THE  DIAMOND-TOOTH  CULTIVATOR  is  A  GOOD  WEED  EBADICATOR  IN 

WEI%  SEASONS 

days  and  always  just  before  the  soil  has  crusted  from  a  rain,  and 
especially  frequently  in  a  season  of  drought.  About  the  first  of 
August  cultivation  should  be  discontinued,  either  in  the  case  of 
gang-plowing  up  to  the  vines,  dragging,  or  plowing  a  single  fur- 
row to  each  side  of  the  hill.  Care  should  be  observed  to  maintain 
the  soil  level  throughout  the  entire  width  of  the  row  during  the 
growing  season,  thus  insuring  a  more  uniform  distribution  or 
rainfall. 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1293 


Cover 

The  vineyard  should  be  sown  to  a  cover  crop  at  this  time, 
either  by  broadcasting  and  dragging  in  with  the  spring-tooth  har- 
row or  else  by  being  drilled  in.  Before  sowing,  it  is  well  to 
watch  the  weather  maps  closely  and  to  sow  just  before  or  just 
after  rain.  If  good  cultivation  has  been  given,  a  good  seed  bed 
will  result.  Mammoth  clover,  hairy  vetch,  Canada  field  peas, 
cow-horn  turnips,  and  winter  wheat  mixed  with  cow-horn  turnips 
can  be  used.  Mammoth  clover  and  hairy  vetch  have  proved  very 
satisfactory  and  make  ideal  nitrogenous  cover  crops  for  the 
vineyard. 

In  addition  to  furnishing  and  liberating  plant  food  in  the 
soil,  the  organic  matter  derived  from  a  cover  crop  makes  for  a 
better  mechanical  condition  and  conserves  moisture.  A  crop 
growing  late  in  the  fall,  after  the  vines  have  ceased  growing, 
utilizes  nitrates  which  are  being  formed  at  that  time  and  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost  by  leaching.  Especially  does  this  hold 
true  on  knolls  and  hillsides  liable  to  washing.  There  can  be  no 
tioubt  that  the  grape  does  best  under  frequent  and  thorough 
fill.ige,  which  means  that  organic  matter  and  humus  are  being 
rapidly  burned  out  of  the  soil..  Hence  the  loss  must  be  supplied 
i»y  the  use  of  stable  manure  or  cover  crops. 

Fertilizers 

The  fertilizers  required  by  the  grape  are  still  largely  a  mat- 
ter of  experiment  ;  and,  until  this  phase  is  thoroughly  worked  out, 
the  grower  must  rely  on  his  vines  to  show  him  what  is  needed. 
Even  should  the  wood  growth  indicate  a  lack  of  nitrogen,  how- 
ever, it  would  not  necessarily  indicate  that  more  nitrogen  should 
be  added  to  the  soil,  since  a  sufficient  quantity  might  already  be 
present  and  yet  be  unavailable  by  reason  of  poor  tillage,  lack  of 
drainage,  and  other  faulty  practices. 

Manuring 

The  above  statements  will  apply  equally  well  to  the  use  of 
stable  manure.  No  authentic  evidence  is  at  hand  to  show  that 
grape  yields  have  been  increased  by  its  use,  nor  can  it  be  said 
that  wood  growth  has  been  increased  by  its  use  alone.  Certain 


1294 


THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  THE  GRAPE  IN  NEW  YORK     1295 

persons  believe  that  such  is  the  case,  but  conclusive  evidence  is 
lacking.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  stable  manure  does  im- 
prove the  soil  texture  of  the  vineyard,  however. 

No  person  should  attempt  to  grow  grapes  for  pleasure  or 
profit,  unless  he  is  willing  to  give  them  proper  care.  The  his- 
tory of  grape  growing  has  been  and  is  today  one  of  ups  and 
downs,  and  the  specific  reasons  for  the  fluctuations  are  yet 
unknown.  Undoubtedly  a  combination  of  causes  is  responsible. 
In  every  region  of  decline  are  many  vineyards  which  are  measur- 
ing up  to  the  standard,  and  why?  In  all  such  vineyards  the 
grower  has  given  personal  supervision  and  intelligent  care  to  his 
vines  and  has  not  attempted  to  obtain  a  great  yield  in  one  year 
at  the  expense  of  the  next,  but  rather  has  been  satisfied  to  pro- 
duce a  fair  crop  each  year.  This  should  be  the  aim  of  each 
grower.  Neither  excessive  wood  growth  nor  an  excessive  yield  in 
alternate  years  is  desired,  but  a  balance  should  be  struck  between 
the  extremes. 


FIG.  435. —  LOADING  THE  GRAPES  FOB  TRANSFER  TO  PACKING  SHED 


CONTROL   OF  INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   THE   GRAPE 

F.  Z.  HARTZELL 

Associate  Entomologist,  Vineyard  Laboratory  of  the  Xew  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Fredonia,  X.  Y. 

GENERAL     DIRECTIONS     FOR     THE     TREATMENT     OF     VINEYARDS     TO 
PREVENT   INSECT   DEPREDATIONS 

,s^^^^  We  note  the  stress  laid  by  the  medical 

world    upon    prophylactic    measures,    thus 
p  keeping  men  healthy  rather  than  allowing 

them  to  become  ill  and  then  applying 
remedial  treatment.  The  same  logic  applies 
to  vineyard  practice  so  far  as  parasites  are 
concerned.  In  other  words,  it  is  usually 
comparatively  easy  to  prevent  serious  trou- 
ble from  insects,  while  if  an  injurious 
species  becomes  established  it  not  only  may 
cause  considerable  financial  loss,  but  the  owner  may  have  a  diffi- 
cult problem  in  eradicating  the  pest.  Special  treatments  for  the 
control  of  the  more  injurious  species  are  given  below ;  but,  before 
discussing  these,  directions  will  be  given  to  assist  growers  to  avoid 
such  trouble. 

Clean  Culture 

Conditions  in  and  around  vineyards  often  determine  the  sus- 
ceptibility to  or  immunity  from  insect  pests.  Grape  growers 
should  not  allow  weeds  or  grass  which  die  and  lodge  to  remain 
above  ground  in  the  vineyard  during  the  winter.  Such  growth 
can  be  prevented  by  planting  cover  crops  which  remain  green 
during  the  winter.  On  level  soil,  plowing  during  the  fall  after 
the  grape  foliage  has  fallen  will  be  found  very  beneficial  if  weeds 
and  grass  are  present.  If  grape-berry  moth  is  present,  fall  plow- 
ing, by  which  all  fallen  leaves  are  covered,  will  assist  in  the  con- 
trol of  this  pest,  as  well  as  other  species  which  hibernate  in  rub- 
bish. Vineyards  infested  with  the  rose  chafer  will  be  benefited 
by  the  planting  of  surrounding  areas,  in  which  this  insect  passes 
the  larval  stage,  to  cultivated  crops.  All  fence  rows  and  waste 

[1296] 


CONTKOL    OF    INSECTS    INJURIOUS    TO    THE    GltAPE        1297 

places  which  cannot  be  cultivated  should  ho  burned  over  to  de- 
stroy  hibernating  places  of  the  grape  leaf  hopper  and  other  spe- 
cies. In  this  connection  we  will  add  that  berries  should  never  be 
planted  near  grapes,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  afford  hibernat- 
ing places  for  and  are  the  spring  food  plants  of  the  grape  leaf 
hopper.  The  destruction  of  all  wild  grapevines  near  vineyards 
will  assist  materially  in  the  control  of  the  grapevine  flea-beetle. 
It  is  true  that  clean  culture  as  denned  above  will  not  assist  in  the 
prevention  or  control  of  the  grape  root-worm. 

Spraying 

Every  vineyard  would  be  benefited  by  at  least  one  annual  appli- 
cation of  bordeaux  mixture  (4-4—50)  with  3  pounds  of  paste  ar- 
seiiate  of  lead,  no  matter  how  few  insect  pests  might  be  present. 
This  protects  the  vines  from  the  powdery  mildew,  and  also  pre- 
vents insects  from  migrating  into  and  thus  becoming  established  in 
a  vineyard.  The  application  should  be  made  about  two  weeks 
after  the  fruit  has  set.  This  single  spraying  has  been  found  ade- 
quate in  many  of  our  experimental  yineyards.  This  application 
should  l>e  made  the  first  week  in  July. 


FIG.  436. —  INJURY  TO  ROOTS  OF  GRAPE  BY  LARVAE  OF  GRAPE  ROOT-WORM. 
NOTE  ABSENCE  OF  ALL  FIBROUS  ROOTLETS 


1298 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  437. —  LARVA  OF  GRAPE  ROOT- WORM 
(Enlarged) 


THE    GRAPE   ROOT-WORM 

The  grape  root-worm  is  the  larva  of  a  grayish-brown  beetle 
(Fidia  viticida  Walsh).  This  species  is  the  most  important  in- 
sect pest  of  grapes  in  !Xe\v 
York.  The  larvae  feed  on 
the  fibrous  rootlets  and  later 
upon  the  bark  and  cambium 
layer  of  the  larger  roots. 
Vines  showing  roots  with 
the  bark  channeled,  together 
with  an  absence  of  small 
fibrous  roots  (Fig.  436), 
furnish  almost  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  work  of  this 
pest,  and  when  growers  are 

not  acquainted  with  the  insect  this  root  condition  should  be  the 
first  sign  sought  in  a  diagnosis  of  the  cause  of  weakened  vines. 
This  feeding  occurs  during  late  summer  and  autumn,  and  during 
that  time  the  grubs  usually 
reach  full  growth  (Fig. 
437).  Little  feeding  oc- 
curs in  the  spring.  During 
June  the  grubs  transform 
to  pupae  and  emerge  as 
adult  beetles  (Fig.  438)  the 
latter  part  of  June  or  early 
July. 

The  feeding  of  the  adults 
produces  characteristic 
chainlike  markings  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  foliage 
(Fig.  439).  The  feeding 
is  ravenous  for  the  first  few 
days  after  emergence,  but 
diminishes  with  the  in- 
creased age  of  the  adults.  About  two  weeks  after  emergence, 
egg^laying  begins  and  continues  for  about  one  month,  during 
which  time  a  female  will  lay  about  two  hundred  eggs.  These 


FIG.  438. — ADULT  OF  GRAPE  ROOT-WORM 
(Enlarged) 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GRAPE      1299 

eggs  are  deposited  under  the  rough  hark  of  all  parts  of  the 
vine  ahove  ground,  but  usually  are  more  numerous  on  the  eaues. 
Hatching  occurs  during  August  and  the  young  grubs  seek  the 
roots.  The  vast  majority  of  individuals  of  this  species  complete 
their  life  cycle  in  a  single  season,  but  rarely  an  individual  will 
require  two.  years  to  complete  its  cycle. 


FIG.  439.  —  FEEDING  BY  ADULTS  OF  THE  GRAPE  ROOT-  WORM. 


Control 
Two  methods  of  control  are  practical: 


(1)  destruction  of  the 


pupae,   and   (2)   destruction  of  the  adults  before  they  lay  their 


Destruction  of  the  Pupae 

During  the  last  cultivation  of  the  season  a  low  ridge  is  left  un- 
der the  vines.     This  ridge  is  usually  removed  rather  early  the  fol- 
lowing season,  hut  when  the  vineyard  is  seriously  infested  with 
11 


1300 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


root-worm  this  ridge  should  be  allowed  to  remain  until  the  ma- 
jority of  the  larvae  have  pupated  and  then  be  removed  with  a 
horse-hoe.  This  operation  crushes  many  of  the  pupae  and  also 
breaks  open*  the  cells  of  others,  thus  exposing  them  to  the  air  and 
sunlight.  While  this  operation  is  very  helpful  in  the  control  of 
this  species,  it  should  not  be  relied  upon  entirely,  for  many  of  the 
pupae  wTill  be  missed  by  the  horse-hoe. 


FIG.  440. —  RESULT  OF  FEEDING  BY  ADULTS  OF  GRAPEVINE  FLEA-BEETLE, 
PHOTO  TAKEN  JUNE  4.  AT  THIS  TIME  THE  UNINJURED  BUDS  HAD  PRODUCED 
SHOOTS  ABOUT  Two  FEET  IN  LENGTH 

The  most  practical  method  of  controlling  the  adults  is  spray- 
ing with  poison  sprays.  The  material  to  be  used  is  determined 
by  the  amount  of  infestation.  With  a  moderate  number  of  beetles, 
excellent  results  are  secured  by  spraying  the  vines  with  bordeaux 
mixture  (4—4—50)  and  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon 
as  the  first  adults  appear,  followed  by  a  second  application  in 
about  ten  days. 

With  a  serious  infestation  the  best  results  are  secured  by  spray- 
ing the  vines  when  the  beetles  are  present  in  large  numbers,  using 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GRAI-K       l.'JOl 

a  poison  bait  consisting  of  from  one  to  two  gallons  of  cheap  stock 
molasses  and  six  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  100  gallons  of 
water.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  apply  this  material  so  as  to 
avoid  rains,  for  the  molasses  greatly  decreases  the  adhesion  of 
the  arsenate  of  lead.  A  second  spraying  should  be  made  about  one 
week  later,  using  bordeaux  mixture  (4-4-50)  and  three  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead.  This  second  spraying  answers  a  twofold 
purpo.-e  : 

1.  It  replaces  any  poison  of  the  first  spray  that  may  be  washed 
off  by  rains. 

2.  It  seems  to  repel  migrating  beetles  which  would  otherwise 
deposit  their  eggs. 


THE    GRAPEVINE    FLEA-BEETLE 

When  the  buds  of  the  grapes  arc  swelling,  trim,  shining  steel- 
blue  beetles  often  make  their  ap- 
pearance on  the  vines  and  feed  upon 
the  tender  buds.  These  beetles  are 
very  active  and,  upon  the  approach 
of  enemies,  leap  to  the  ground, 
where  they  lie  motionless  for  a 
short  time.  This  habit  of  jumping 
has  given  them  the  name  of  flea- 
beetle,  but  in  many  localities  they 
are  called  "  steely  "  beetles,  owing 
to  their  color.  This  insect  is  known 
to  science  as  HaUica  chalybea 
llliger.  The  feeding  by  these  in- 
sects (Fig.  440)  usually  kills  all 
buds  attacked,  which  means  the  loss 
of  the  fruit  that  normally  would 
have  developed  from  these  buds. 
Vines,  however,  are  seldom  killed 
by  this  feeding.  The  new  buds 
which  later  develop  produce  foliage 
and  shoots,  but  practically  no  fruit. 


FIG.  441. —  EGGS  OF  GRAPE- 
VINE FLEA-BEETLE  ON  GRAPE 
CANE.  ( Enlarged. ) 


Feeding  occurs  during  the 


warmer  days  of  May  and  June,  and  mating  is  frequent. 


1302  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  INJUKIOTJS  TO  THE  GRAPE      1303 

The  eggs  are  orange  in  color,  about  four-hundreclths  of  an  inch 
in  length,  ami  of  a  cylindrical  form.  They  are  placed  about  the 
buds  and  in  the  crevices  of  the  rough  bark  of  the  canes  (Fig. 
441).  Most  of  the  eggs  hatch  by  the  middle  of  June. 

The  larvae  (Fig.  442)  feed  upon 
the  foliage  during  the  month  of 
June  and  early  July,  and  on  reach- 
ing full  growth  crawl  to  the  ground, 
in  which  they  form  cells  and  pupate. 
The  adults  (Fig.  44.'> )  emerge  the 
latter  part  of  July  and  usually  seek 
the  wild  vines,  upon  which  they 
feed.  This  late  summer  feeding 
makes  it  difficult  to  locate  the 
beetles.  The  beetle  enters  hiber- 
nation rather  early  in  the  fall.  The 
places  most  perf erred  are  woodland 

and  situations  in  which  leaves  and 

i  i  .  i         n          i  ,     FIG.  443. —  ADULT  OF  GRAPEVINE 

rubbish  collect,    but  they  also  seek         FLEA-BEETLE     (Enlarged) 

the  shelter  of  rough  bark  of  trees. 

From  such  places  they  emerge  with  the  warm  days  of  spring  and 

seek  the  vineyards.     Only  a  single  brood  develops  each  season. 

Control 

Two  periods  in  the  life  cycle  of  this  species  are  favorable  for 
control:  (1)  when  the  larvae  are  feeding  and  (2)  when  the  adults 
appear  in  the  vineyard  in  the  spring.  Spraying  the  vines  with 
three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  50  gallons  of  water  when  the 
larvae  are  feeding  on  the  foliage  is  a  very  effective  method  of 
controlling  this  pest.  If  the  adults  appear  in  the  vineyards  in  the 
spring,  the  most  practical  method  of  control  is  hand  picking.  This 
is  accomplished  by  knocking  the  insect  into  a  pan  containing  a 
shallow  layer  of  kerosene.  This  method  is  cheaper  than  spraying 
with  poison. 

The  destruction  of  all  wild  vines  near  a  vineyard  will  usually 
give  immunity  from  this  pest. 


1304 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is   !\E\V  YORK  STATE 


THE    ROSE     CHAFER 

Appearing  when  the  grapes  begin  to  blossom,  and  feeding 
largely  upon  the  blossom  and  newly  set  fruit,  the  rose  chafer 
(Macrodactylus  subspinosus  Ear.)  is  able  to  do  an  immense 
amount  of  damage  to  the  crop.  The  injury  is  usually  very  im- 
portant, since  this  pest  appears  in  great  numbers  in  infested  areas. 
However,  it  does  not  weaken  or  kill  the  vine.  Vineyards  situ- 
ated on  or  near  sandy  soil  are  most  liable  to  be  infested,  because 
the  larvae  live  only  in  the  lighter  soils. 

The  adult  rose  chafer  feeds  on  a  large  variety  of  plants,  but  is 
especially  fond  of  blossoms  of  the  vine  and  the  rose.  It  also 
feeds  on  the  young  fruit  of  the  apple,  peach,  plum,  and  cherry. 
After  feeding  on  the  grape  blossom  for  nearly  a  week  it  migrates 
to  the  blossoms  of  the  staghorn  sumac,  red  osier,  and  elder.  The 
larvae  feed  entirely  on  the  roots  of  grasses,  being  partial  to  the 
foxtail,  timothy,  and  blue  grass.  Sometimes  the  larvae  are  found 
feeding  on  such  grasses  in  neglected  vineyards,  but  they  usually 
inhabit  grass  fields  and  waste  land. 

Life  History 

The  beetles  emerge  as  adults  (Fig.  444)  during  June,  and,  after 

feeding  but  a  short  period,  begin 
to  mate;  but  egg-laying  does  not 
occur  until  the  insects  have  fed 
nearly  two  weeks.  The  females 
burrow  into  the  soil  and  there 
deposit  from  a  few  to  twenty-five 
egga.  These  eggs  hatch  in  about 
ten  days  and  the  young  larvae 
feed  during  the  summer  and 
autumn  on  the  roots  of  .  the 
grasses.  These  grubs  resemble 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  white 
grub  (Fig.  445)  and  have  never 

FIG.  444.- ADULT  ROSE  CHAFER         heen  found  feeding  on  the  roots 

(Enlarged)  of    grapes.       They    are    seldom 

found  deeper  than  six  inches  while  feeding,  but  as  cold  weather 

approaches  they  burrow  deeper  to  avoid  the  severe  cold.    Early  in 


CONTROL  OF  LXSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GUAPK      1305 

•tlic  spring  they  come  nearer  the  surface  and  resume  feeding.  I  hir- 
ing the  latter  part  of  May  these  grubs  form  cells  and  change  1<» 
pupae,  emerging  as  adults  about  the  middle  of  June  of  a  normal 
season.  The  adults  usually  appear  about  the  time  the  Concord 
grape  begins  to  bloom. 

Control 

Three  methods  of  control  have  proved  effective  against  this 
pest:  namely,  (1)  the  destruction  of  the  larvae,  (2)  cultivation 
to  kill  the  pupae,  and  (3)  spraying  to  kill  the  adults. 

Inasmuch  as  the  larvae  feed  on 
the  roots  of  grasses  and  are 
found  only  on  sandy  soil,  it  is 
easy  to  locate  their  feeding 
ground  and,  unless  the  land  is 
inarablo,  plant  it  to  crops  which 
will  require  cultivation  during 
the  season.  This  will  destroy 
the  grasses  and  the  larvae  will 
perish. 

When  the  grubs  have  changed     FlG-     445-~  LARVA     'OF     ROSE 

°  CHAFER    (Enlarged) 

to  pupae,  they  are  easily  killed 

by  thorough  cultivation,  which  will  break  the  cells  and  crush 
many  pupae,  thus  preventing  the  emergence  of  a  large  percentage 
of  them. 

The  best  results  in  spraying  to  control  this  pest  have  been 
secured  by  the  use  of  sweetened  arsenical  sprays.  Spray  as  soon 
as  the  beetles  appear,  using  arsenate  of  lead,  6  pounds ;  molasses, 
1  gallon;  water,  100  gallons.  Make  a  second  application,  if 
necessary,  one  week  later.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid 
applying  the  spray  previous  to  rains,  because  the  molasses 
destroys  the  adhesion  of  the  arsenate  of  lead.  If  a  rain  occurs 
within  thirty-six  hours  after  spraying,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
repeat  the  application  as  soon  as  weather  conditions  permit. 

THE    GRAPE   LEAF-HOPPER 

No  insect  is  more  common  in  the  vineyards  of  this  state  than 
the  grape  leaf-hopper  (Typhlocyba  comes  Say.).  Many  growers 
erroneously  call  these  insects  the  grape  "  thrips."  The  injury  to 


1306 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


the  vines  vary  with  the  season  and  the  locality.  In  the  Chautauqua 
region  it  is  seldom  that  they  are  present  in  numbers  sufficient  to 
inflict  damage  over  an  extended  area,  pasc 
records  indicating  that  this  occurs  about 
once  in  every  eight  or  ten  years.  In  the 
other  grape  regions  of  the  state  they  are 
more  abundant  each  season,  considerable 
injury  occurring  to  the  vineyards  and  dur- 
ing shorter  periods.  In  individual  vine- 
yards, especially  those  near  favorable 
hibernating  places  or  in  close  proximity 
to  the  spring  food  plants  of  this  insect, 
serious  injury  may  result  for  a  number 
of  seasons  in  succession.  The  spring  food 
plants  most  preferred  are  strawberry,  rasp- 
berry (both  red  and  black),  and  blackberry. 

The  insect  obtains  its  food  by  piercing  the  epidermis  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf  and  sucking  the  sap.  Additional  injury  is 
caused  by  the  insertion  of  the  eggs  under- 
neath the  skin  of  the  leaf.  All  such  punc- 
tures decrease  the  starch-producing  area  of 
the  vine,  which  results  in  decreased  pro- 
duction of  wood  and  in  a  decided  lowering 
of  the  quality  of  the  fruit. 


FIG.     446  —  NYMPH     OF 

GRAPE  LEAF-HOPPEB 
( Fifth    instar ;     enlarged ) 


Life  History 

The  eggs  are  deposited  during  the 
month  of  June  and  early  July.  Those 
first  deposited  hatch  from  June'  15  to 
the  end  of  the  month,  but  the  majority 
hatch  by  about  the  tenth  of  July.  The 
young  leaf-hoppers  are  known  as  nymphs 
and  resemble  the  adults  in  form,  with  the 
exception  of  having  no  wings  (Fig.  446). 


FIG.  447 — ADULT  GRAPE 

LEAF-HOPPER 

( Enlarged ) 


These  nymphs  reach  the  adult  stage  (Fig.  447)  during  August: 
many  of  them  mate  and  eggs  are  laid,  from  which  a  second  brood 
develops.  Individuals  of  the  second  brood  reach  maturity  about 


CONTROL  OF  IXSECTS  IX.TURIOUS  TO  THE  GRAPE      1307 

the  middle  of  September.  1'sually  only  one  brood  is  produced 
each  season.  The  leaf-hoppers  which  become  adults  during  the 
latter  part  of  July  or  later  feed  on  the  foliage  until  autumn  and 
then  seek  winter  quarters. 

The  only  stage  of  the  grape  leaf-hopper  known  to  pass  the 
winter  in  this  state  is  the  adult.  They  seek  fallen  leaves  and 
grass  which  has  lodged,  and  under  such  protection  pass  the  winter 
(Fig.  448).  It  is  necessary  that  such  places  be  comparatively  dry 
and  free  from  inundation  if  the  insects  are  to  survive.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  we  find  sandy  ridges  and  knolls  most  favored  by 
them.  Emergence  from  hibernation  occurs  during  the  warm  days 
of  spring,  after  which  the  leaf-hoppers  seek  their  food  plants. 
I'IMHI  these  they  remain  until  the  foliage  of  the  grape  has  ex- 
panded, when  they  migrate  to  this,  mate,  lay  their  eggs,  and  die. 


FIG.   448. —  CONDITIONS   FAVORABLE  FOR  THE   HIBERNATING  OF   GRAPE 

LEAF-HOPPERS 


Control 

Two  methods  of  control  are  effective  against  the  grape  leaf- 
hopper:  (l)spraying  with i  contact  insecticides;  (2)  destruction  of 
the  hibernating  places.  The  only  spray  that  is  effective  is  one 


1308  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

that  reaches  the  body  of  the  insect,  and  therefore  the  aim  must  be 
to  spray  so  as  to  kill  the  nymphs  before  they  have  developed  their 
wings.  This  is  accomplished  by  applying  the  spray  to  the  under 
side  of  the  foliage,  between  July  10  and  15  of  a  normal  season, 
using  a  spray  containing  .02  per  cent  of  nicotine  (^  pint  of 
Black-Leaf  40  to  100  gallons  of  water  or  bordeaux  mixture). 
The  application  to  the  under  side  of  the  foliage  is  accomplished 
either  by  means  of  trailing  hose  or  by  an  automatic  grape  leaf- 
hopper  sprayer.  (iSee  Geneva  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
Xo.  344  for  description  of  machine).  This  will  kill  the  majority 
of  the  brood,  although  a  few  eggs  may  hatch  later  and  a  few  of 
the  earlier  appearing  individuals  may  have  developed  wings. 
Sprays  applied  either  earlier  or  later-  than  the  above  dates  will 
not  have  the  maximum  efficiency. 

This  method  of  control  means  that  the  vineyard  having  a 
serious  infestation  will  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  adults  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  and  considerable  injury  may  result  to 
the  foliage.  Injury  to  the  more  permanent  foliage  can  be  largely 
avoided  by  allowing  the  shoots  which  spring  up  around  the  base 
of  the  vine  to  remain  until  just  previous  to  the  time  of  spraying 
instead  of  removing  them  in  June,  as  is  usually  done.  The  habit 
of  the  adults  of  flitting  to  the  ground  at  the  least  disturbance  of 
the  foliage  and  their  return  to  the  lower  foliage  makes  this  recom- 
mendation feasible. 

Clean  Culture 

Cover  crops  which  remain  green  during  the  winter  are  of 
great  benefit  to  vineyards,  and  fortunately  these  crops  do  not  har- 
bor grape  leaf-hoppers.  Weeds  and  many  strong-stalked  grasses, 
which  die  in  the  fall  and  lodge,  offer  excellent  hibernating  places. 
By  avoiding  such  rubbish  in  the  vineyard  and  by  keeping  grass 
patches  surrounding  vineyards  closely  mowed,  almost  perfect  pro- 
tection can  be  secured  against  these  insects.  The  burning  of 
leaves  and  rubbish  in  fence  rows  and  waste  places  near  infested 
vineyards  during  the  autumn  or  early  winter  is  recommended, 
thereby  destroying  all  hibernating  places. 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  L\. Minors  TO  TTIK  CrRArE      1309 


TI!  K   <;i{Al'K-l!Ki:UY    MOT  1  1 


Grape  clusters  are  often  found  having-  a  number  of  berries  in- 
jured by  a  dark-colored  caterpillar.  Such  grapes  are  designated 
by  the  growers  as  "wormy."  This  caterpillar  is  the  larva  of  the 
grape-berry  moth  (Polyclirosis  viteana  'Clemens). 


Fi<;.  44!). —  INJURY  TO  FRUIT  BY  LARVAE  OF  GRAPE-BERRY  MOTH, 
SHOWING  CLUSTER  AS  TAKEN  FROM  VINE.  XOTE  UNSIGHTLY 
CONDITION 

Part  of  the  injury  is  caused  by  the  caterpillars  of  the  first 
brood,  which  feed  on  the  stems  and  external  portions  of  the  young 
berries,  but  the  greatest  damage  is  due  to  the  feeding  on  the  inside 


1310  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ITS  NEW  YORK  STATE 

of  the  berries  by  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars.  The  loss  to  the 
grower  occurs,  first,  by  the  loss  of  fruit;  and,  secondly  and  most 
important,  through  the  marring  of  the  clusters  of  grapes  intended 
for  table  use  and  the  cost  of  labor  to  pick  out  all  worthless  fruit. 


FIG.  450. —  INJURY  TO  FRUIT  BY  LARVAE  OF  THE  GRAPE-BERRY 
MOTH,  SHOWING  SAME  CLUSTER  AS  IN  FIG..  449  AFTER  INFESTED 
FRUIT  HAS  BEEN  REMOVED 


Figs.  449  and  450  illustrate  this  point.  The  damage  is  very 
irregular,  usually  being  most  severe  near  woodland.  In  such 
areas  often  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the  fruit  is  destroyed. 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GRAPE      13.11 

Life  History 

The  winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage  on  leaves  underneath 
the  vines.  About  the  time  the  grapes  are  blossoming,  the  moths 
emerge  and  mate,  and  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stems,  blossom  clusters, 
and  newly  set  fruit.  When  the  caterpillars  hatch  they  feed  on  the 
stems  and  newly  set  fruit,  often  webbing  a  number  of  the  berries 
together  (Fig.  451  ).  Occasionally  they  will  cat  on  the  interior  of 
a  berry.  After  reaching  full  growth,  these  caterpillars  cut  out  a 
portion  of  the  leaf,  drawing  it  into  a  pupal  case  by  means  of  silken 
threads  (Fig.  452),  and  hero  pupate  (Fig.  453). 


FTG.  451. — LARVA  OF  THE  FIRST  BROOD 
01  (Ji; APE-BERRY  MOTH  FEEDING  ON 
EXTERIOR  OF  FRUIT  (Enlarged) 


The  second  brood  of  moths  emerge  during  the  latter  part  of 
July  and  August.  Eggs  are  laid,  and  from  these  hatch  the  second 
brood  of  caterpillars,  which  live  entirely  in  the  berries.  They 
often  web  several  berries  together,  thus  destroying  much  more  fruit 
tlia  11  is  required  for  food.  These  larvae  leave  the  berries  about  the 
time  the  fruit  is  ripe,  form  cocoons  on  the  leaves,  and  hibernate. 


1312 


Tin:  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  j.\  .Xi«:w    YORK   STATE 


The  adult  moths  are  small,  having  a  wing  spread  of  less  than 
one-half  inch.  They  are  of  a  brown  color  curiously  mottled  with 
gray,  and,  when  quiet,  closely  resemble  the  bark  of  the  grape  on 
which  they  rest  during  the  brighter  portions  of  the  day.  They  are 
most  active  during  sultry  nights,  although  they  fly  during  cloudy 
days  and  at  dusk. 

Control 

The  grape-berry  moth  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  insect  of  the 
vine  to  control,  but  by  proper  attention  to  details  much  loss  may 


FIG.  452. —  LARVAE  OF  THE  GRAPE-BERRY 
MOTH  FORMING  COCOONS,  SHOWING  Two 
LARVAE    IN  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  SPIN- 
NING WITH  A  COMPLETE   COCOON  BELOW 
( Enlarged ) 

be  avoided.  Spraying  is  most  important  just  after  the  fruit  is  set, 
and  the  most  effective  material  is  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  to 
which  have  been  added  iVo  pounds  of  soap  and  3  pounds  paste 
arsenate  of  lead.  The  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  to  cover 


CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  L\.irijiors  TO  TIIK  GIJAI-K      1  .'> 


the  fruit  and  stems  thoroughly  with  the  material.  A  second  nppli- 
cation,  using  the  same  material,  should  be  made  during  the  early 
]>;irt  of  August.  Where  ;i  vine- 
yard is  only  slightly  infested,  it 
often  pays  to  pick  and  destroy  the 
berries  infested  by  the  spring 
brood. 

Plowing  an  infested  vineyard, 
cither  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in 
the  spring  and  paying  particular 
attention  to  cover  rather  deeply 
all  leaves  immediately  underneath 
the  vines,  then  allowing  this 
ground  to  remain  undisturbed 
until  the  early  part  of  June,  will 
prevent  the  emergence  of  many  of 
the  moths.  The'  centers  of  the 
rows  may  be  cultivated  during 


FIG.  453. — PUPAE  OF  THE  GRAPE- 
BERRY  MOTH.        (Enlarged) 


May,  because  the  greatest  number    of 
underneath  the  vines. 


pupae    are    immediately 


DISEASES  OF  GRAPES 

DR.  DONALD  REDDICK 
Professor  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  early  attempts  at  grape  culture  in 
the  United  States  without  exception  were 
failures.  It  is  now  known  that  these  failures 
were  not  due  to  uncongenial  soil,  as  was 
believed  at^the  time,  but  to  the  ravages  of 
diseases  which  are  much  more  destructive 
to  European  sorts  than  to  those  indigenous 
to  America.  The  black  rot  disease,  the 
downy  mildew,  and  the  powdery  mildew  are 
the  diseases  chiefly  concerned.  When  these 

troubles  were  finally  introduced  into  Europe  they  proved  as 
destructive  as  they  had  previously  been  in  European  sorts  grown 
in  America,  and  it  was  only  the  very  fortunate  discovery  of 
bordeaux  mixture  and  its  effectiveness  against  downy  mildew 
that  saved  European  viticulture  from  extinction. 

Following  the  early  failures  with  European  varieties  began 
the  amelioration  of  American  grapes,  all  of  which  are  more  re- 
sistant to  the  indigenous  American  diseases  than  are  the  European 
varieties.  This  difference  in  susceptibility  is  exhibited  in  hy- 
brids between  the  two,  and  varieties  having  only  one-eighth 
European  "  blood "  almost  invariably  exhibit  a  marked  sus- 
ceptibility to  those  diseases.  It  should  be  remembered  at  the 
outset,  then,  that  the  pedigree  of  a  variety  will  furnish  an  im- 
portant indication  of  its  probable  susceptibility  to  disease. 

BLACK  EOT 

This  disease  is  very  common  in  the  Central  Lakes  region  and  in 
the  Hudson  district,  but  it  rarely  appears  in  the  Chautauqua  belt 
and,  when  it  does,  is  not  very  destructive.  The  disease  is  caused 
by  a  fungous  parasite,  Guignardia  bidwellii,  which  passes  the 
winter  in  the  hard  black  mummies  on  the  dead  tendrils,  or  on 
small  dead  areas  on  the  canes.  The  disease  first  appears  in  the 
spring  in  the  form  of  brown  leaf  spots  about  one-fourth  inch  in 

[1314] 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GUAL'E 


1315 


FIG.  454. —  BLACK  ROT  ON  FRUIT  OF  NIAGARA  GRAPE.     EVERY  BERRY  IN  THE 
CLUSTER  Is  INFECTED. 


1316  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  JN   .\KW    YOKK   STATE 

diameter,  or  as  black  oblong  spots  on  the  shoots,  on  the  leaf 
petioles,  or  on  the  tendrils. 

The  fungus  spreads  from  these  spots  by  means  of  spores,  which 
are  produced  abundantly  and  which  are  carried  to  fruit  by  spat- 
tering drops  of  rain.  The  fruit  is  quickly  destroyed  and  only  a 
hard  black  mummy  is  left. 

The  disease  may  be  controlled  by  timely  and  thorough  applica- 
tions of  bordeaux  mixture.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
before  blossoming  and  the  second  shortly  after  the  blossoms  fall. 
A,  high  pressure  should  be  maintained,  and  the  nozzles  should  be 
set  in  such  a  way  that  the  foliage  will  be  covered.  The  nozzles 
should  be  fitted  with  replaceable  disks  having  small  holes  in  order 
that  an  exceedingly  fine  mist  may  be  formed.  These  two  appli- 
cations are  the  most  important,  but  in  a  rainy  season  at  least  two 
more  applications  should  be  made  —  one  when  the  berries  are  the 
size  of  a  pea  and  a  later  one  just  before  the  berries  are  large 
enough  to  touch  each  other.  These  applications  should  be  made 
with  trailing  devices  and  the  spray  applied  by  hand,  special 
effort  being  made  to  cover  the  clusters. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  4— ±— 50,  is  the  most  effective  material  known 
for  this  disease.  It  acts  as  a  preventive,  and,  to  secure  best  re- 
sults, should  be  applied  as  indicated  above  whether  the  disease 
has  appeared  or  not.  The  quantity  of  material  applied  per  acre 
is  not  so  important  as  is  the  evenness  of  distribution  and  fineness 
of  the  spray. 

DOWNY    MILDEW 

This  disease  also  is  common  in  the  Central  Lakes  region  and  in 
the  Hudson  River  district.  It  can  be  found  in  the  Chautauqua 
belt  in  such  varieties  as  the  Delaware,  the  \7ergennes  and  the  vari- 
ous Rogers  hybrids.  It  has  never  been  seen  on  Concord,  the  chief 
variety  of  the  belt.  As  distinguished  from  black  rot,  the  downy 
mildew  is  chiefly  a  foliage  trouble  and  is  in  general  less  destruc- 
tive than  black  rot.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungous  parasite, 
Plasmopara  viticola.  This  fungus  passes  the  winter  in  fallen 
diseased  leaves.  Under  moist  conditions  it  passes,  by  means  of 
spores,  from  the  fallen 'leaves  to  all  green  parts.  Brown  spots  a 
half-inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter  appear  on  the  leaves,  the  tip  of 
the  shoot  may  be  affected  and  increase  in  diameter,  and  the  berries 
may  be  affected  and  develop  a  gray  or  brown  rot.  The  chief 


DISK  ASKS    OF     Till; 


Fi<;.    4.1.1. —  DOWNY    MIM>I:W    ON    (iitAiT.    FOI.IAC.I: 

The  most    conspicuous   symptom   of  downy  mildew    is   Ihr   hirjjje   white  s|iot^ 
appearing  on  the  under  surface  of  leaves.     The  fruit  is  sometimes  attacked. 


1318 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


damage  is  on  foliage,  and  the  presence  of -the  disease  on  leaves 
may  be  confirmed  with  certainty  by  inverting  brown-spotted  leaves 
and  examining  for  a  white,  frost-like  growth.  Eventually  the  old 
spots  spread  or  new  spots  develop  and  the  leaf  turns  brown  and 
dies,  thus  leaving  the  fruit  sour  and  unripe. 

The  disease  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  as  for  black  rot. 
Ordinarily  the  two  early  applications  are  sufficient  to  hold  the 
disease  in  check,  but  in  the  case  of  early  autumn  rains  the  later 
application  may  prove  of  great  benefit. 

POWDERY  MILDEW 


This  disease  is  common 
wherever  grapes  are  grown, 
but  is  most  destructive  in  the 
Chautauqua  belt.  The  Rogers 
hybrids  are  especially  sus- 
ceptible to  it,  but  the  disease 
is  of  greatest  importance  be- 
cause of  its  prevalence  on 
the  Concord.  The  disease  is 
caused  by  a  superficial 
fungous  parasiter  Uncinula 
necator.  The  fungus  passes 
the  winter  on  affected  fallen 
leaves  and  perhaps  also  on 
the  canes.  It  rarely  becomes 
active  until  the  middle  of 
July  or  later,  and  often  the 
first  spots  of  the  disease  are 
not  found  until  the  middle 
of  August.  Small,  grayish- 
white  spots  appear  on  all 
green  spots  of  the  vine.  They 
are  noticable  first  on  the  foli- 
age. They  increase  in  size 


FIG.    456. —  POWDERY     MILDKW     ON 

GRAPES 

The  fungus  spreads  over  the  berries 
and  prevents  their  normal  develop- 
ment. The  lower  berry  is  nearly 
normal.  The  pedicles  and  peduncles 
are  also  affected  and  shrivel  very 
quickly  after  harvest. 


and  eventually  cover  the  entire  leaf.  The  presence  of  the  fungus 
on  the  peduncle  of  the  cluster  is  most  serious,  since  it  weakens  the 
stem,  which  shrivels  very  rapidly  when  the  cluster  is  removed 
from  the  vine. 


DISEASES  OF  TIIK   (JUAIM-: 


FIG.  457. —  POWDERY  MILDEW  ON  GRAPE  FOLIAGE 
Eventually  the  entire  leaf  is  covered  with  the  white  powdery  growth. 


1320  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK   STATK 

The  disease  may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  bordeaux  mixture. 
The  two  last  applications  recommended  for  black  rot  are  espec- 
ially valuable. 

DEAD    AR,]\I    DISEASE 

The  dead  arm  disease  is  one  of  comparatively  recent  appear- 
ance. It  is  not  found  011  European  varieties;  although,  if  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  it  might  prove  very  serious.  The  disease 
occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  state,  lout  seems  to  be  more  common  in 
the  Chautauqua  belt  and  on  the  Concord  variety. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungous  parasite,  Cryptosporella  riti- 
cola.  The  fungus  passes  the  winter  in  small  black  fruiting 
bodies  on  the  dead  parts  of  affected  vines.  In  the  early  spring  it 
spreads  by  means  of  spores  to  the  young  shoots,  and  later  in  the 
season  to  nearly  matured  berries,  producing  a  black  rot.  The 
spots  on  the  shoots  are  small,  black,  and  oblong.  The  fungus 
passes  slowly  into  the  Avood,  and,  if  the  shoot  is  not  cut  off  too 
soon,  gains  entrance  to  the  arms  or  trunk  of  the  vine.  A  slow 
dry  rot  follows,  the  vine  showing  evidence  of  this  condition  by 
the  small  leaves,  often  yellowish  in  appearance  and  crimped 
about  the  margin.  Eventually  the  vine  dies. 

The  disease  may  be  controlled  by  marking  affected  vines  when 
the  first  symptoms  appear  and  removing  them  at  pruning  time. 
Suckers  brought  up  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  almost 
invariably  develop  into  strong,  healthy  vines.  The  first  applica- 
tion of  bordeaux  mixture  recommended  for  black  rot  is  valuable  in 
protecting  the  shoots  from  infection. 


DlSKASKS     OK     TIIK     (JlJAl'K 


1321 


"!! 


FIG.  458. —  CHARACTERISTIC  APPEARANCE  OF  VINE  AFFECTED  WITH  DEAD- 
ARM  DISEASE 


PRODUCTION  AND  MARKETING  OF  GRAPES  IN  THE 
CHAUTAUQUA  BELT 

S.  J.  LOWELL,  FREDONIA,  N".  Y. 
Master,  New  York  State  Grange 

FOUNDATION    OF    THE   INDUSTRY 

In  considering  the  history  of  the  grape 
industry  in  the  Lake  Erie  Valley  from  the 
marketing  or  financial  viewpoint,  we  are 
at  once  confronted  with  the  fact  that  the 
advent  of  certain  varieties  was  the  founda- 
tion for  a  remarkable  increase  in  grape  cul- 
ture. Until  about  1865  a  few  grapes  had 
been  grown,  such  as  Catawba,  Isabella, 
lona,  Diana,  and  Clinton,  these  being  used 
mostly  for  wine. 

The  advent  of  the  Concord  was  the  factor  that  at  once  gave 
impetus  to  the  growing  of  grapes  as  a  successful  and  standard 
branch  of  agriculture.  Of  the  Concord,  I  have  this  to  say : 
When  first  introduced  it  could  always  be  picked  by  the  middle  of 
September;  but  now,  from  the  indiscriminate  selection  of  wood 
for  propagation  and  the  removal  of  all  growth  of  the  previous 
year  —  large  wood  and  small  wood  from  weak  vines  as  well  as 
strong  —  this  grand  variety  is  slowly  breaking  down  and  revert- 
ing. The  time  is  now  ripe  for  the  introduction  of  a  new  variety 
that  will  supersede  the  Concord.  I  know  many  will  dispute  this, 
and  I  hope  they  may,  in  order  that  the  fact  may  be  brought  more 
forcibly  to  the  minds  of  propagators  of  the  grape. 

About  1885,  Mr.  Jonas  Martin,  of  Brocton,  sent  out  the  offer 
that  he  would  pay  five  dollars  each  for  every  cluster  of  Concord 
grapes  that  should  weigh  a  pound.  With  visions  of  easy  money 
the  writer  started  for  the  Martin  farm  with  a  shoot  bearing  three 
clusters,  the  three  weighing  three  pounds  and  two  ounces.  On 
his  arrival  he  found  that  three  or  four  early  birds  had  already 
appeared  and  that  Mr.  Martin  had  withdrawn  his  offer.  In 

[13221 


MARKETING  OF  GRAPES  IN  CHAUTAUQUA  BELT       1323 

justice  to  Mr.  Martin  1  should  state  that  he  paid  for  the  first 
clusters  delivered,  and  then  corrected  his  idea  that  no  clusters 
were  grown  weighing  one  pound  each. 

EVOLUTION    OF   PACKAGES 

The  first  marketing  of  grapes  from  the  Chautauqua  grape 
helt  was  in  the  early  sixties,  and  was  done  by  wagon  haul  to  the 
nearby  towns.  The  packages  were  three-  and  five-pound 
square  boxes,  packed  in  crates  of  twelve  boxes  to  the  crate.  The 
Fruit  was  packed  in  a  tin  container,  and  the  first  layer  included 
very  best  fruit  that  could  be  had.  The  clusters  were  clipped 
with  shears  so  that  the  bottom  layer  would  be  level,  smooth,  and 
with  no  signs  of  stems.  This  container  was  made  just  small 
enough  to  slip  into  the  wooden  box.  When  it  was  full,  the  box 
was  slipped  on,  turned  over,  the  tin  container  pulled  out,  and 
there  on  top  lay  all  the  fruit  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  tin, 
now  smooth^ and  well  faced.  Yet  we  often  hear,  "  Oh,  for  the 
good  old  honest  packing!" 

The  next  package  used  was  the  round  box,  instead  of  the 
square  one,  but  packed  and  crated  in  the  same  manner.  This 
bore  a  fine,  colored  label  that  added  much  to  the  attractions  of  the 
package.  The  next  was  the  twenty-pound  splint  basket,  which 
was  used  in  connection  with  the  boxes.  Then  came  into  general 
use  the  twelve-pound  basket,  and  the  use  of  the  boxes  ceased. 
With  the  entrance  of  the  Climax^  basket,  a  ten-pound  container, 
the  custom  of  selling  by  the  basket  became  general;  this  was,  I 
believe,  in  1885.  Previous  to  this  all  grapes  had  been  sold  by 
the  pound. 

The  change  was  brought  about  largely  by  the  fact  that  the 
growers  believed  the  commission  men  were  shrinking  the  weight 
of  shipments,  and  the  growers  believed  that  if  they  could  sell 
fruit  by  the  basket  they  could  do  the  shrinking  at  the  initial  end, 
and  save  the  trade  the  bother.  Many  believe  that  they  have  done 
their  work  well.  The  nine-pound  basket  followed  the  ten-pound 
Climax  basket,  and  the  five-pound  basket  began  to  be  used  at  this 
time,  being  soon  followed  by  the  use  of  crates  for  wine  stock, 
which  in  turn  was  sold  by  the  pound  with  the  package  weighed  in. 
This  led  to  immediate  complaints  that  the  package  was  too  heavy ; 


1324  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

in  other  words,  the  wine  makers  objected  that  they  were  buying 
too  much  wood  with  the  fruit. 

In  order  to  correct  this  practice  the  20-pound  basket  was  again 
brought  into  use,  this  basket  being  a  Climax  basket  with  veneer 
sides,  solid  bottom,  and  splint  hoops  and  handle,  usually  having 
an  open  splint  cover. 

This  enumeration  of  containers  does  not  include  the  modern 
sizes,  and  the  changes  have  continued  until  at  this  time  there  are 
the  three-pound,  the  four-pound,  the  four-quart,  the  eight-pound, 
and  the  20-pound  baskets. 

UNIFORM    STANDARD    PACKAGES    NECESSARY 

Both  national  and  state  laws  have  been  passed,  but  thus  far 
they  have  not  been  conclusive  or  final,  and  have  chiefly  served 
to  worry  the  growers  without  giving  them  any  direct  benefit  so 
far  as  can  be  ascertained.  It  is  to  be  sincerely  hoped  that  the 
federal  government  will  soon  pass  a  law  that  will  establish  a 
clear  standard  for  all' packages,  so  that  any  one  may  safely  ship 
fruit  to  another  state  without  fear  of  being  a  lawbreaker. 

Package  standards  should  be  based  on  cubic  measure  and  not 
on  weight,  as  no  grower  can  ship  fruit  in  easily  opened  containers 
without  loss  from  sampling  on  the  route,  and  from  this  sampling 
he  may  become  technically  a  lawbreaker  if  the  standard  is  on 
a  weight  basis.  Fruit  with  large  juice  content,  such  as  grapes, 
is  also  subject  to  losses  in  weight  by  evaporation,  and  even  this 
might  cause  serious  difficulty  in  a  weight-basis  standard.  Certain 
standard  sizes  of  cubic-measure  contents  should  be  made  con- 
venient to  all,  and  growers  would  then  gladly  conform  to  the  law. 
The  weight  standard  is  not  possible  with  fruit,  as  shrinkage 
varies  according  to  weather  conditions.  So  much  may  be  said 
for  packages  and  the  necessity  for  national  legislation.  Although 
but  a  detail  of  the  business,  it  is  nevertheless  important. 

PRIMITIVE    METHODS    OF    SHIPPING 

While  the  style  and  kind  of  packages  has  been  changing,  the 
manner  of  marketing  —  if  this  term  can  be  used  to  designate  it 
—  has  also  undergone  changes  from  time  to  time  without  much 


.M  AKKKTl.Xt;     OF     (JlIAl'KS     IN     (  '  II  Al'TA  T<jr  A      Ul-il/I'  lol'f) 

regard  t<>  system.  As  I  have  stated,  in  the  beginning  all  market- 
ing was  done  by  wagon,  hut  the  acreage  began  to  increase  as  the 
prolific  character  of  our  soils  and  climate  were  better  known,  and 
the  availahle  markets  within  reach  of  wagons  were  not  sufficient 
to  consume  the  crop. 

Express  shipments  were  next  in  order,  and  the  railroads  did 
not  take  kindly  to  the  traffic  in  grapes.  I  remember  very  well 
the  time  when  growers  were  obliged  to  load  the  baskets  on  a  truck 
at  the  station  for  themselves,  to  have  it  ready  when  the  train 
pulled  in,  and  to  place  the  fruit  in  the  car  while  the  passengers 
were  getting  off  and  on  the  train,  or  else  see  the  train  pull  out 
leaving  them  with  a  partly  unloaded  truck,  when  they  would  be 
compelled  to  wait  until  next  day  to  load  the  remainder  of  the 
shipment.  Under  these  conditions  local  express  shipments  were 
soon  followed  by  shipping  in  local  freight  shipments,  and  then 
developed  the  full  carload  business  on  which  the  modern  growth 
of  the  business  is  built. 

EVOLUTION  OF  COOPERATIVE  SELLING 

Carload  shipments  required  some  kind  of  cooperation,  and  this 
was  first  accomplished  by  an  agreement  between  the  larger  grow- 
ers to  ship  and  sell  grapes  for  others  at  a  charge  of  tHie-h'alf  cent 
a  basket,  thus  obtaining  enough  to  ship  with  their  own  fruit  and 
fill  solid  carloads  for  distant  cities.  No  sooner  had  this  practice 
become  established  than  complaints  began  to  be  heard  that  ship- 
pers were  taking  out  more  than  the  half-cent  a  basket  agreed  on, 
and  that  shippers  were  becoming  rich. 

During  this  time  I  remember  an  incident  that  will  throw  some 
light  on  how  shippers  began  to  send  fruit  to  distant  parts  of  the 
I'nited  States.  A  firm  known  as  Martin  &  Eyckman  asked  how 
many  persons  would  put  grapes  in  a  car  to  be  shipped  to  Denver. 
Some  said  it  would  be  foolish  to  think  of  such  a  thing,  but  finally 
a  sufficient  number  came  forward  to  supply  grapes  to  fill  a  car. 
The  writer  furnished  his  share  for  the  experiment.  Then  we 
anxiously  waited  to  learn  whether  we  had  succeeded  in  adding 
to  our  markets  or  whether  we  should  hear  a  shout  from  the  croak- 
ers, "  I  told  you  so."  The  car  did  well.  It  was  the  initial  act 
that  enabled  us  to  capture  the  markets  of  our  country. 


1326          THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Complaints  regarding  the  practices  in  the  shipping  of  grapes 
continued  until  a  united  effort  was  made  to  consolidate  the  grow- 
ers into  one  large  corporation  or  shipping  company.  After  some 
trials  this  was  worked  out  in  the  following  manner : 

At  a  meeting  held  for  the  purpose  a  committee  was  *appointed 
consisting  of  one  grape  grower  from  each  school  district  in  the 
grape  belt.  .The  work  of  the  members  of  this  committee  was  to 
canvass  the  belt  and  obtain  signers  to  a  petition  asking  for  the 
organization  of  a  company  to  handle  the  entire  crop.  Each  signer 
was  to  take  one  share  of  stock,  the  shares  being  five  dollars  each. 
About  ninety  per  cent  signed  to  organize  such  a  company.  By- 
laws were  then  drawn  up  and  a  printed  contract  was  sent  to  every 
one  who  had  signed  the  petitions.  About  seventy-five  per  cent 
actually  signed  and  paid  for  the  stock,  and  the  first  large  company 
was  thus  organized. 

This  company  put  out  of  business  the  men  who  had  been  ship- 
ping for  one-half  cent  a  basket,  but  some  who  did  not  want  to 
lose  so  profitable  a  trade  began  to  buy  at  the  car  doors,  paying- 
cash  and  taking  the  market  risk  themselves.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  were  small  shippers,  while  the  company  was  a  very  large 
one,  they  could  select  the  best  markets.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
big  shipping  company,  consisting  of  the  growers  themselves,  had 
to  use  every  market  to  dispose  of  its  large  crop,  and  this  enabled 
the  small  shippers  to  outsell  the  large  company.  It  so  happened 
that  many  who  remained  outside  the  organization  received  more 
for  their  crops  than  did  those  who  joined.  They  were  not  slow  in 
making  this  known,  and  as  a  result  many  were  drawn  away  from 
the  company.  From  that  time  until  the  present  day  many  plans 
have  been  advised,  some  of  which  have  been  tried  out.  As  a  re- 
sult two  facts  are  evident  to  the  careful  observer:  first,  that  con- 
sumers desire  better  fruitr  but  do  not  wish  to  pay  more  for  it; 
second,  that  the  growers  want  to  put  in  almost  everything  and  still 
obtain  good  returns.  The  one  extreme  is  just  as  unfair  as  the 
other. 

BUYERS  NOT  WILLING  TO  PAY  FOR  QUALITY 

For  ten  years,  from  1900  to  1910,  the  writer  was  the  manager 
of  a  shipping  company  that  was  formed  to  put  up  and  sell  a 
grade  of  fine  table  fruit.  On  every  basket  appeared  this  state- 


MARKETING  OF  GRAPES  IN   ( 'n  AT  TAT-QUA  BELT        1327 

I 

ment:  "  These  grapes  are  put  up  under  contract  for  the  Poni- 
fret  Fruit  Co.  and  are  guaranteed  free  from  given,  dirty,  or  mil- 
dewed fruit,  and  anyone  finding  anything  wrong  will  please 
notify  the  company.  Signed,  John  Doe,  Grower." 

Every  complaint  that  came  in  had  careful  attention.  If  we 
were  convinced  that  the  fruit  was  not  right,  the  money  was  re- 
funded. Less  than  tifty  complaints  were  received  in  the  ten 
years.  Every  grower  agreed  to  stand  the  loss  if  his  name  was 
the  one  given.  Did  it  pay  {  Xo.  The  only  advantage  we  gained 
was  that  our  grapes  sold  first  when  the  same  price  was  asked. 

One  quotation  from  the  many  letters  received  will  show  just 
how  it  worked  out:  u  Gentlemen:  I  have  been  looking  for  your 
fruit,  I  always  buy  it  when  I  can  get  it  at  the  same  price  asked 
by  the  others.  Are  you  still  selling  grapes?"  It  shows  that  all 
love  a  bargain  in  fruit  as  wrell  as  in  everything  else.  It  ended  by 
the  growers  putting  in  their  baskets  the  same  kind  of  fruit  as 
all  others  did,  for  they  did  not  feel  that  they  could  lose  a  quantity 
)f  poor  fruit  if  the  choice  fruit  was  not  appreciated  by  the  buyers 

the  extent  of  at  least  breaking  even  when  the  poor  fruit  was 
>ft  out.  At  present  we  have  cooperative  companies  and  cash 
myers,  which  are  about  equal  as  to  business  done. 

METHOD    OF    HARVESTING 

Two  methods  of  harvesting  are  used :  first,  picking  in  crates  or. 
trays,  which  are  taken  when  full  to  the  packing  houses  and 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  fruit  is  wilted  before  being  packed  in 
the  baskets  for  shipment;  secondly,  picking  and  packing  in  the 
field.  The  latter  method  is  the  cheaper,  no  doubt,  but  it  is  an 
>pen  question  as  to  whether  the  grapes  arrive  on  the  market  in 
good  shape  as  when  wilted  before  packing.  Some  companies 
iave  refused  to  accept  the-  field-packed  fruit, 

POPULAR  VARIETIES 

The  leading  variety  is  Concord.  Probably  95  per  cent  of  all 
te  grapes  grown  here  are  of  this  variety.  Next  come  Worden, 
iagara,  Moore's  Early,  and  Champion.  Over  one  hundred  other 
varieties  may  be  found  that  are  grown  in  an  experimental  way, 
mt  very  few  have  qualities  that  make  them  of  any  value  as  a 
mnnercial  proposition. 


132$  Tin-:   FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix   XEW  YORK   STATE 

i 

At  the  present  time  a  large  amount  of  energy  is  being  devoted 

by  the  experiment  stations  and  by  interested  individuals  to  the 
propagation  of  new  varieties,  and  we  can  reasonably  look  for 
something  good  to  be  developed  in  the  near  future. 

CULTURAL   METHODS 

Very  little  change  has  been  made  in  the  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion of  the  grape  since  it  was  first'  grown  here.  We  have  many 
methods,  but  they  are  too  numerous  to  detail,  and  they  represent 
individual  experience  rather  than  any  established  standard.  There 
are  a  few  conditions,  however,  that  have  to  be  met  by  all,  such  as 
plowing  away  in  spring,  or  using  a  disk,  which  amounts  to  the 
same  thing.  The  question  of  how  early  or  how  late  this  operation 
should  begin  is  a  disputed  point.  The  writer  does  not  believe  in 
too  early  cultivation.  Later  in  the  season,  however,  the  better 
the  cultivation,  the  better  the  results.  The  time  to  cease  working 
the  ground  is  another  disputed  point.  To  the  careful  observer 
who  has  had  years  to  study,  these  two  conclusions  seem  to  be  fairly 
proved.  The  first  is  that  in  a  wet  season  late  cultivation  has 
been  found  detrimental  to  the  developing  of  good,  sweet  fruit. 
The  second  is  that  in  a  dry  season  late  cultivation  may  be  of 
benefit ;  if  very  dry,  it  may  prove  a  great  benefit.  As  the  grower 
cannot  know  what  the  future  has  in  store,  the  best  growers  have 
a  rule  they  follow  year  after  year;  the  large  majority  cease  all 
soil  work  the  last  of  July  or  very  early  in  August,  believing  that 
more  injury  is  done  in  wet  seasons  than  benefits  are  gained  in  dry 
ones  by  a  later  working  of  the  soil. 

A  few  years  ago  the  cover  crop  was  a  thing  almost  unknown ; 
it  is  now  slowly  being  adopted  throughout  the  belt.  Its  useful- 
ness is  accepted  by  all,  the  disputed  point  merely  being  the  kind 
of  a  cover  crop  and  how  it  may  be  best  handled.  The  writer 
favors  oats  or  barley,  first,  because  the  seed  cost  is  light,  about  one 
bushel  of  either  to  the  acre  being  sufficient;  secondly,  because 
either  makes  sufficient  growth  to  catch  all  the  leaves  from  the 
grape  vines  —  an  important  factor ;  thirdly,  they  endure  a  rather 
hard  freeze  and  remain  standing,  thereby  holding  the  snow  well ; 
fourthly,  they  do  not  grow  in  spring.  The  last  I  believe  is  their 
strongest  point.  They  form  a  cover  to  the  land  when  they  die 


M.\KKKTI.\<;     OK     (llfAI'KS     IX     ClI  A  f  I'  A  U<J  T  A      I'>KI.T  1329 

down  during-  the  winter,  and  prevent  erosion  of  the  soil.      This 
brings  us  to  the  question  of  early  and  late  plowing  in  spring. 

I  like  to  begin  cultivation  as  late  in  spring  and  cease  as  early 
in  fall  as  possible.  The  cover  crops  suggested  make  this  practice 
successful.  They  can  be  sown  the  latter  part  of  July  and  make 
growth  enough  to  hold  the  soil  through  the  heavy  fall  rains,  mak- 
ing uo  growth  in  spring,  so  cultivation  may  be  delayed  into  May. 
Tf  such  a  cover  crop  is  grown,  grapes  seem  to  be  freer  from  berry 
moth  than  if  legumes  are  grown. 

METHODS    OF    PRUNING 

Pruning  is  done  in  about  as  many  ways  as  men  have  minds, 
most  using  the  arm  system  as  a  foundation.  This  system  should 
he  called  "  the  ChantauqUa,"  as  it  was  first  used  here:  There  are 
other  systems,  all  of  which  are  explained  in  cultural  methods  for 
the  grape  in  Xew  York  011  page  1272. 

ESSENTIAL    CLIMATE    FOR    GRAPE    CULTURE 

Many  persons  wonder  what  makes  this  Lake  Erie  Valley  such 
a"  wonderful  place  for  grape  production  and  attribute  it  to  the 
soil,  but  the  climate  is  the  real  secret  of  its  success.  There  are 
two  essentials  for  profitable  grape  culture:  first,  water  to  prevent 
frosts;  secondly,  air  drainage.  In  the  Lake  Erie  Valley  these 
qualifications  have  produced  a  dry  atmosphere;  there  are  no  foggy 
mornings  and  very  little  dew,  and  only  three  frosts  have  occurred, 
in  the  last  fifty  years  that  have  done  damage  to  the  grape  crop. 
In  this  belt  we  have  harvested  grapes  every  year  of  this  fifty 
years  varying  from  fifty  per  cent  to  a  full  crop. 

MAGNITUDE    OF    THE    INDUSTRY 

The  crops  harvested  have  been  from  four  or  five  thousand  to 
between  eight  and  nine  thousand  carloads  a  year.  The  bumper 
crop  was  grown  in  1890,  when  nearly  nine  thousand  carloads 
were  harvested.  This,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  a  panic  year, 
and  the  growers  of  grapes  went  into  competition  with  one  of  the 
largest  apple  crops  ever  harvested,  a  policy  that  proved  detri- 
mental to  both.  In  that  year  the  grape  growers  lived  on  hope, 


1330  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

almost  every  one  hoping  the  other  fellow's  crop  would  be  lighter 
the  next  year.  All  saw  their  hopes1  realized. 

All  will  want  to  know  what  this  fruit  is  bringing  in  cash  to 
the  growers  and  the  consequent  effect  on  the  value  of  local  real 
estate.  The  figures  have  not  been  completed  for  the  crop  of  1915. 
For  the  year  1914,  however,  the  value  of  the  crop  was  about 
$2,600,000,  and  the  figures  will  not  vary  greatly  from  that  for 
the  past  year. 

Nothing  has  been  said  about  the  wine  and  grape-juice  factories 
which  have  been  built  in  this  vicinity  by  reason  of  the  grape 
crop,  as  they  are  taken  up  in  articles  on  pages  1246  and  1268. 
As  to  the  price  of  land  here,  conservative  men  put  it  from  two  to 
three  hundred  per  cent  increase,  many  farms  having  been  sold  for 
much  more  than  that.  By  reason  of  climatic  conditions  grapes 
will  never  be  grown  except  on  a  very  limited  area,  since  they  are 
too  costly  a  proposition  if  late  spring  frosts  are  likely  to  take  place. 
For  that  reason  we  flo  not  forsee  that  there  will  ever  be  much 
danger  of  an  overproduction. 

Men  who  have  traveled  widely  for  years  are  unanimous  in  their 
opinion  that  there  is  no  more  beautiful  region  in  existence  than 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  and  when  the  October  air  is  filled 
with  the  perfume  of  the  ripened  grape,  the  health-giving  qual^ 
ities  of  which  have  been  known  since  the  days  when  our  Savior 
drank  of  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  we  feel  that  this  is  the  land  of 
opportunity. 


HYBRID  GRAPES  AT  GENEVA 

R.    I).   ANTHONY 

Associate   Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Geneva,  X.  Y. 

PIONEER   EXPERIENCE 

One  of  the  first  things  which  impressed 
the  early  explorers  and  colonists  along  the 
Atlantic  const  was  the  abundance  of  wild 
grapevines.  The  name  Vineland,  given  to 
part  of  this  coast  by  the  Norsemen,  is  an 
illustration  of  this.  Yet,  when  these  wine- 
loving  people  planted  their  vineyards,  they 
used  cuttings  or  seeds  of  Vitis  vinifera 
brought  from  their  native  homes  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Spain,  and  Germany.  Com- 
pared with  their  own  native  grapes,  the  small  size  of  our  wild 
grapes  and  their  frequent  lack  of  that  clear  flavor  so  desirable  in 
a  wine  grade  made  them  seem  unworthy  of  planting.  For  the 
next  hundred  years,  the  history  of  these  plantations  of  European 
sorts  is  one  long  series  of  failures  and  discouragement.  Even  in 
the  hands  of  the  most  expert  vineyardists,  the  vines  soon  sickened 
and  died,  and  no  variety  could  be  found  which  could  live  under 
the  adverse  conditions  of  the  new  country  until  about  1800,  when 
the  Cape  or  Alexander  grape  was  planted  in  a  few  vineyards. 
This,  though  a  native,  was  deceptively  introduced  as  a  Vinifera, 
and  marks  practically  the  beginning  of  American  grape  growing. 

RESULTS    FOLLOWING    THE    INTRODUCTION    OF    THE    ISABELLA    AND 

THE   CATAWBA 

The  marked  success  of  the  Alexander  and4he  fortunate  dis- 
covery of  the  Isabella  and  the  Catawba,  two  other  native  kinds, 
revived  interest  in  grape  growing.  The  realization  of  the  possi- 
bilities in  our  native  species  started  many  vine  enthusiasts  search- 
ing the  woods  for  the  bettor  sorts  and  also  growing  native  seedlings 
on  a  more  or  less  extensive  scale.  Although  this  resulted  in  the 
production  of  the  Concord,  but  little  else  of  value  was  secured. 

12 


1332  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 


HYBRID  GRAPES  AT  GENEVA 


1333 


It  was  fifty  years  after  the  introduction  of  the  Cape  grape  that 
the  next  important  development  came.  Amateurs  still  continued 
to  grow  Vinifera  grapes  in  a  limited  way,  and  mainly  under 


FIG.  460. —  SECRETARY  —  SECURED  BY  CROSSING  CLIN- 
TON, A  NATIVE,  AND  MUSCAT  HAMBURG,  A  VINIFERA 
VARIETY 

glass.  With  these  grapes  at  hand,  the  idea  very  naturally  occurred 
to  several  persons  to  cross  this  blood  upon  our  native  species. 
Previous  to  1850  both  Valk  and  Allen  had  used  Vinifera  blood 
in  breeding,  but  their  results  were  not  promising  and  attracted 


1334 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


but  little  attention.  In  1851,  C.  S.  .Rogers  of  Salein,  Mass.,  used 
the  pollen  of  two  Viniferas  upon  the  pistils  of  a  cultivated  La- 
brusca  arid  secured  forty-five  hybrid  seedlings.  Of  those,  thirteen 
were  given  names,  including  such  well-known  kinds  as  Salem, 
Lindley,  Agawam,  Herbert,  and  Wilder.  His  success  led  many 
enthusiastic  amateur  breeders  to  follow  his  example,  and  to  de- 
velop not  only  hybrid  seedlings  but  to  cross  our  native  sorts  among 


FIG.  461. —  THE  VINIFERA  VINEYARD 


themselves.  In  the  fifteen  years  following  the  dissemination  of 
Rogers'  seedlings,  nearly  one  quarter  of  all  the  varieties  now  cul- 
tivated in  northeastern  United  States  were  first  introduced.  Al- 
though many  of  the  Vinifera  hybrids  proved  disappointments  be- 
cause of  lack  of  vigor  or  productiveness,  nevertheless  there  is 
scarcely  a  grape  of  high  quality  which  does  not  possess  some  blood 
of  this  species,  and  it  is  in  quality  especially  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  these  hybrids  has  been  epoch-making. 


HYBRID  GRAPES  AT  GENKVA 


FIG.  462. —  MUSCAT  HAMBURG 


1336  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

After  this  auspicious  start,  the  last  sixty  years  have  been  a  dis- 
appointment from  a  breeding  standpoint.  Concord  and  Catawba, 
poor  as  they  are,  still  remain  among  our  most  important  commer- 
cial varieties ;  and  few,  if  any,  of  the  many  Vinif era  hybrids  have 
surpassed  Rogers'  first  attempts.  This  has  been  largely  because 
the  work  has  been  done  in  a  limited  way,  without  plan,  and  with 
very  little  knowledge  of  the  varieties  which  have  been  used  as 
parents.  The  rediscovery  of  ITendelism  and  the  light  which  has 
been  thrown  upon  the  laws  of  inheritance  since  then  have  shown 
breeders  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mentals before  any  considerable  success  can  be  hoped  for.  To 
gather  such  information  requires  years  of  painstaking  effort  and 
the  study  of  a  large  amount  of  material. 

RESULTS   OF  EXPERIMENTS   OF  A  QUARTER-CENTURY 

For  twenty-five  years  the  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva  has 
been  breeding  grapes  on  an  extensive  scale.  Much  of  the  work 
has  been  with  our  native  sorts,  but  the  principles  developed  with 
these  will  apply  equally  well  with  the  European  grape.  Recogniz- 
ing the  value  of  Yin  if  era  blood  in  imparting  high  quality,  it  was 
thought  advisable  to  attempt  growing  varieties  of  this  species  on 
the  Station  grounds  at  Geneva.  In  the  hundred  years  which  had 
passed  since  extensive  attempts  to  grow  this  grape  had  been  given 
up  in  favor  of  the  native  species,  science  had  shown  that  the  chief 
causes  of  the  early  failures  were  from  mildew,  from  a  root-suck- 
ing louse  which  destroyed  the  Yinifera  roots  but  seldom  injured 
the  native  roots,  and  from  inability  to  withstand  the  severity  of 
our  winter  climate  without  special  protection. 

Early  in  1911,  cuttings  of  nearly  one  hundred  Yinifera  va- 
rieties were  secured  and  grafted  upon  native  vines  that  were  from 
four  to  eight  years  old,  thus  avoiding  trouble  with  the  root  louse. 
These  vines  have  been  well  sprayed,  and  every  fall  they  have  been 
bent  to  the  ground  and  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  dirt.  With 
these  precautions  many  of  the  vines  have  given  results  equal  to 
or  surpassing  our  native  kinds.  The  wrork  of  crossing  the  most 
promising  ones  with  our  own  best  sorts  began  in  1912,  and  there 
are  now  over  five  hundred  and  fifty  direct  hybrids  in  the  Station's 
vineyards  and  nurseries.  It  is,  of  course,  too  early  to  say  what 


HYBRID  GRAPES  AT  GENEVA 


1337 


the  results  of  this  work  will  be,  but  every  indication  points  to 
probable  success. 

The  work  with  Vitis  vinifera  has  not  been  confined  to  the  mak- 
ing of  direct  hybrids  only.     The  best  of  the  hybrids  produced  by 


FIG.  463.— CLINTON 

Rogers  and  subsequent  workers  have  been  crossed  among  them- 
selves and  with  pure  native  sorts,  and  it  is  significant  that  from 
more  than  six  thousand  seedlings  which  have  fruited,  practically 
the  only  ones  showing  promise  are  those  which  contain  some  Vini- 
fera blood. 


1338  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Perhaps  it  would  not  be  wise  to  close  this  paper  without  a 
word  of  encouragement  to  the  amateur  breeder.  The  private 
grower  cannot  hope  to  carry  on  this  work  to  the  extent  and  with 
the  continuity  that  can  be  secured  at  an  experiment  station.  On 
the  other  hand,  practically  every  variety  now  under  cultivation 
has  been  found  or  produced  by  the  lover  of  grapes  working  in  a 
small  way,  frequently  as  Rogers  worked,  with  only  a  backyard  at 
his  disposal  for  growing  his  seedlings.  For  the  true  grape  lover 
the  pleasure  of  the  work  is  its  own  reward,  but  there  is  always  the 
hope  that  a  fortunate  combination  of  parents  may  produce  vari- 
eties superior  to  those  now  under  cultivation.  Each  addition  to 
our  knowledge  of  varieties  and  of  breeding  laws  brings  this  end 
so  much  nearer. 


HYBRID  GRAPES  AT   (IK.NKVA 


L339 


TABLE    SIIOWIM;    THE    NTMIIKK    OF    VINES    AND    PRODUCTION    IN    POUNDS   OF 
(IKAI'KS   IN    NEW   YOKK  STATE.  1IY  COUNTIES 


County 

Albany  

Allegany 

Broome 

Cattaraugus  .  . 

Cayuga  

Chaiitanqua  .   . 

Cbemung 

Chenango  

Clinton 

Columbia 

Cortland 

Delaware 

Dntchess 

Erie 

Essex 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton 

Herkimer 

Jefferson  

Kings 

Lewis 

Livingston    .    . 

Madison 

Monroe 

Montgomery  .  . 

Nassau 

New  York 

Niagara  

Oneida 

Onondaga  .  .  . . 

Ontario 

Orange  

Orleans 

Oswego 

Otsego 

Putnam 

Queens 

Rensselaer  .  .  . 
Richmond  .... 
Rockland  .... 
St.  Lawrence  . 
Saratoga  .... 
Schenectady  .  . 
Schoharie  .... 
Schuyler  .... 

Seneca  

Steuben  

Suffolk 

Sullivan 

Tioga 

Tompkins  .... 


(Taken   from  U.   S.   Census,    1910) 


Vines 


Pounds 


8,782 

85,381 

857 

17,822 

4,922 

94,653 

180,292 

1,525,123 

56,113 

661,826 

5 

,782,646 

132,029,939 

3,579 

50,273 

2,041 

52,073 

770 

12,923 

364,674 

3,482,633 

1,026 

20,316 

1,295 

30,666 

72,594 

585  ,  356 

1 

,141,278 

10,638,840 

14,116 

57,579 

314 

5,761 

684 

14,001 

8,060 

165,429 

13,139 

116,328 

1 

25 

971 

30,946 

2,337 

22,539 

99 

800 

174 

1,197 

95,909 

721,430 

f3,790 

202,800 

188,477 

2,138,752 

8,612 

81,787 

1J39 

18,275 

23 

320 

358,312 

4,065,201 

6,049 

114,405 

47,149 

630,767 

1 

,831,644 

11,155,951 

200,733 

1,698,745 

38,321 

565,904 

8,891 

160,299 

1,265 

37,272 

2,134 

12,060 

854 

8,754 

10,468 

137,315 

730 

5,080 

5,513 

67,015 

833 

15,564 

4,907 

69,681 

2,398 

29,885 

2,869 

58,282 

923,263 

5,253,621 

561,869 

6,157,171 

2 

,568,026 

17,509,702 

5,265 

72,849 

3,593 

61,549 

2,607 

56,413 

71,922 

550,090 

1340  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


County 
Ulster  

1 

Vines 
,969.301 

Pounds 
13,358,000 

Warren  .  . 

1   165 

23   117 

Washington  .  . 

2  618 

63  126 

WTavne 

65  076 

1   083  859 

\Vestchester 

5  511 

190  526 

WVominjr 

6  525 

57   197 

Yates  

.  .  .             .  .                   5 

.  1  -2:}  ,  572 

36  941   168 

The  State   . 

31 

,802,097 

253.006.361 

THE  STRAWBERRY 


"Doubtless  Cod  could  have  made  a  better  berry,  but  doubtless  He  never  did.' 

IZAAK    WALTON 

[1341] 


PROLIFIC 


STRAWBERRIES 
WILLIAM  PALMER,  REXFORD,  SARATOGA  COUNTY,  N.  Y. 

The  strawberry  is  one  of  our  best  berries, 
enjoyed  by  nearly  everyone,  and  should  be 
grown  by  all  who  have  even  a  small  piece 
of  ground.  As  it  grows  well  on  nearly  all 
kinds  of  soil,  it  should  not  be  considered  a 
berry  for  the  commercial  grower  only;  it 
can  be  grown  well  by  people  living  in  vil- 
lages and  cities  who  have  a  back  yard  and 
small  garden,  so  that  fresh  strawberries  can 
be  had  all  through  the  season. 

STUDY  VARIETIES 

\Yhen  beginning  to  grow  strawberries,  it  is  well  to  look  over  the 
line  fence  and  see  what  varieties  are  doing  best  for  your  neighbor. 
As  all  varieties  do  not  succeed  well  in  all  soils  and  locations,  it  is 
well  to  try  several  varieties  in  a  small  way,  growing  them  under 
the  same  conditions.  Usually  one  or  more  varieties  will  do  better 
than  the  others,  showing  which  are  best  to  plant.  Do  not  draw 
your  conclusions  too  early,  but  give  them  two  or  three  years'  trial 
before  casting  aside  the  unworthy  ones. 

The  writer  has  grown  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  varieties 
of  strawberries;  but,  as  a  very  large  percentage  of  them  were 
found  to  have  no  profit  and  some  but  very  little  merit,  they  were 
discarded.  In  all  locations  it  is  well  to  test  varieties,  as  it  is 
quite  important  that  the  variety  succeeds  well  on  the  soil.  I  do 
not  know  of  any  one  variety  of  berry  so  prominent  in  the  straw- 
berry family  as  the  Baldwin  apple  is  in  the  apple  family.  The 
strawberry  is  rather  sensitive,  and  must  be  located  in  a  favorable 
home.  The  principal  varieties,  as  grown  in  Saratoga,  Albany, 
Rensselaer,  Schenectady,  and  Montgomery  counties,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: for  early  varieties,  Michel's  Early,  Excelsior,  and  Beder- 
wood ;  midseason,  Sample,  Wm.  Belt,  Splendid,  and  Brandywine ; 
late,  Gandy  and  Stevens7  Late.  A  good  supply  of  staminate 
plants  should  be  set  with  the  pistillate  varieties. 

[1343] 


1344 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


P 

»-]  K 

PH  W 

P 


STRAWBERRIES  1345 

SOILS  AND  CULTURAL  METHODS 

The  strawberry  succeeds  best  on  a  good  sandy  loam  containing 
plenty  of  humus,  so  that  it  will  hold  moisture.  If  the  land  is  in 
sod,  in  order  to  grow  in  a  commercial  way  it  should  be  plowed 
and  sowed  to  buckwheat  the  season  previous  to  setting  the  berries. 
I  prefer  buckwheat  to  any  other  crop  as  it  seems  to  clear  the 
ground  of  weeds.  The  following  spring  (I  mention  spring  be- 
cause I  have  found  that  to  be  the  best  time  to  set  the  plants)  the 
ground  should  be  given  a  liberal  covering  of  manure.  If  the 
manure  is  strawy,  it  should  be  plowed  under ;  but  if  well-rotted  it 
should  be  spread  on  top  after  plowing.  Disc  well  before  harrow- 
ing. The  ground  should  be  well  drained  and  have  a  smooth  sur- 
face so  that  there  are  no  basins  in  which  the  water  can  stand. 
After  harrowing,  use  a  plank  leveler  or  a  light  roller  to  pack  down 
and  smooth  the  surface ;  it  will  help  to  hold  the  moisture  and  make 
setting  the  plants  much  easier. 

The  matted  row  is  the  best  for  a  large  field  of  berries,  the 
rows  being  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  cultivator  should  be  started  as  soon 
as  the  plants  have  been  set.  At  the  second  cultivation  a  liberal 
supply  of  commercial  fertilizer  should  be  scattered  along  the 
rows,  and  then  worked  into  the  ground  around  the  plants  with  a 
hoe.  The  cultivator  should  be  kept  running  through  them  once 
in  two  weeks;  oftener  would  be  better.  Narrow  the  cultivator 
as  the  laterals  commence  to  run ;  continue  narrowing  and  continue 

to  use  the  cultivator  to  the  end  of  the  growing  season, 
i 

MULCHING 

As  soon  as  the  ground  is  frozen  hard  enough  to  hold  up  a  team, 
cover  the  plants  with  straw  or  coarse  manure.  Should  there  be 
basins  of  water  standing  on  the  plants  when  the  ground  com- 
mences to  freeze,  bore  holes  three  or  four  feet  deep  with  a  post- 
hole  auger  to  let  the  water  settle  away ;  then  they  are  ready  for 
frost  and  winter.  In  the  spring  —  not  too  early  —  remove  the 
coarse  part  of  the  mulch  from  the  plants  and  leave  it  between 
the  rows  so  that  it  will  keep  the  berries  clean,  also  serving  to  hold 
the  moisture.  For  extremely  early  berries,  take  off  all  the  mulch  ; 
do  this  quite  early,  as  it  will  hasten  them  to  mature:  for  late 


1346  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  !N"Ew  YORK  STATE 

berries,  leave  all  the  mulch  on,  just  so  the  crowns  of  the  plants 
can  grow  through  the  mulch;  this  will  make  the  berries  ripen  a 
week  or  more  later.  A  piece  of  ground  sloping  to  the  north  or 
northeast  will  also  make  later  berries,  and  very  often  good  late 
berries  will  make  the  profit  on  the  season's  strawberries. 

INSECTS   AND   DISEASE 

In  this  locality  we  have  been  rather  fortunate  in  not  having  any 
serious  disease  or  insect  pest.  The  toughest  enemy  to  fight  is  the 
white  grub.  It  seems  to  be  lying  around  waiting  for  the  plants 
to  be  set,  with  its  teeth  well  sharpened  to  eat  off  the  roots.  Many 
may  be  killed  while  hoeing  or  cultivating.  Keep  watch  of  the 
plants  and,  when  the  leaves  commence  to  wilt,  dig  around  until 
you  find  the  little  rascal ;  then  put  your  foot  on  him  good  and 
heavy.  This  method  must  be  followed  up  until  the  plants  are  well 
established,  and  the  laterals  commence  to  run. 

HOW   TO  CHOOSE   MARKET  VARIETIES 

For  a  select  home  or  nearby  trade,  set  plants  or  varieties  that 
will,  under  good  care,  grow  fine,  large,  high-quality  berries,  as 
such  will  sell  for  the  high  prices.  If  to  be  grown  near  a  manufac- 
turing city,  set  plants  of  heavy-producing  varieties.  They  will 
not  sell  for  the  high  prices,  but  will  usually  make  up  in  the  greater 
number  of  quarts. 

PICKING    AND    MARKETING 

As  a  rule,  women  make  the  best  pickers.  Use  picking  stands 
that  will  hold  from  four  to  eight  baskets.  On  bright,  sunny  days 
the  berries  should  be  kept  out  of  the  sun  as  much  as  possible.  If 
they  are  packed  in  crates,  these  should  also  be  in  the  shade. 
If  not  taken  to  market  at  once,  they  should  be  carried  to  a  cool 
building  or  cellar  and  set  on  the  ground,  so  as  to  keep  them  bright. 
Their  appearance  is  extremely  important  in  selling  them.  A 
clean,  fresh-looking  berry  will  always  sell  well  on  the  market, 
while  a  dull-looking  one  will  sell  slowly  and  discourage  the  sales- 
man. 

The  32-quart  crates  are  the  best  to  use ;  some  families  use  that 
quantity  for  canning.  On  the  way  to  market  be  sure  to  cover  the 


STRAWBERRIES  1347 

crates  with  canvas  or  clean  blankets  to  keep  out  the  dust  and  heat. 
The  selling  prices  of  the  berries  depends  very  much  on  their  ap- 
pearance when  they  reach  the  place  of  sale.  One  lot  will  often 
sell  for  one  cent  per  quart  more  than  another  lot  of  equally  well- 
grown  berries,  and  possibly  all  on  account  of  the  way  they  are 
carried  to  market. 

The  one  who  grows  berries  for  profit  should  be  sure  to  grow 
them  well,  and  enough  of  them  so  that  when  he  returns  from 
market  he  will  be  smiling.  Success  depends  upon  well-grown 
and  well -marketed  berries ;  the  two  ends  must  meet  and  then  there 
is  pleasure  in  the  business. 


1348 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


TABLE  SHOWING  ACREAGE  AND  PRODUCTION  IN  QUARTS  OF  STRAWBERRIES  IN 

YORK  STATE,  BY  COUNTIES 


(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,   1910) 


County 


Albany 

Allegany  .  .    . 

Broome 

Cattaraugus  . 

Cayuga  

Chautauqua  .  . 
Chemung  .  .  . 
Chenango  .  .  . 
Clinton  .... 
Columbia  .  .  . 
Cortland  .... 
Delaware  .  .  . 
Dutchess  .  .  . 

Erie 

Essex 

Franklin  .  .    . 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton  .  .  . 
Herkimer  .  .  . 
Jefferson  .  .  . 

Kings 

Lewis 

Livingston  »  . 
Madison  .... 
Monroe  .... 
Montgomery  . 

Nassau 

New  York  .  . 

Niagara 

Oneida 

Onondaga  .  .  . 

Ontario 

Orange 

Orleans 

Oswego 

O^sego 

Putnam  .... 

Queens 

Rensselaer  .  . 
Richmond  .  .   . 
Rockland  .  .    . 
St.  Lawrence 
Saratoga  .  .    . 
Schenectady  .  , 
Schoharie  .  .  . 
Schuyler  .... 

Seneca 

Steuben  .... 

Suffolk 

Sullivan  .  .  .  . 
Tioga 


Acres 

226 
13 
75 
53 
55 

247 
45 
18 
12 

309 
20 
16 

160 

596 
12 
51 
38 
36 
34 
1 

173 

53 

1 

21 
57 
40 

396 
21 

144 
9 

180 

113 

149 
87 

310 
53 

361 

37 

3 

5 

185 
82 
67 
34 

110 

62 

7 

28 
36 
58 

108 

8 

30 


Quarts 

394,877 

47,706 

231,232 

125,822 

103,977 

551,125 

120,074 

39,115 

18,356 

851,946 

35,340 

36,650 

490,816 

1,659,635 

22,273 

34,098 

135,165 

58,028 

64,131 

1,295 

498,424 

91,887 

558 

42,624 

155,073 

62,314 

1,103,390 

45,515 

263,682 

50,900 

328,986 

269,840 

412,545 

121,686 

795,411 

92,569 

1,021,121 

73,772 

9 , 658 

21,000 

516.003 

144.020 

110,121 

41,388 

251,470 

111,777 

11,232 

51,266 

59,464 

150,646 

224,332 

18,623 

85,007 


STRAWBERRIES  1349 

County                                                                                 Acres  Quarts 

Tompkins 40  103,497 

rister S9f>  2,791,601 

Warren .'Ml  69 , 820 

Washington 38  90,200 

Wayne 192  396 , 371 

Westchester  61  liM.dni 

Wyoming 25  42,825 

Yates 41  67,293 


State 6,382          15,945,863 


THE  RASPBERRY 


"  Either   soon    as    spring    is    fled 

Lurking  berries,  ripe  and  red, 
Then  will  hang  on  every  stalk. 

Each  icithin  its  leafy  bower; 
And  for  that  promise  spare  the  flower." 

WORDSWORTH'S  FORESIGHT 

[13511 


JUNE 


RASPBERRIES 

O.  .AI.  TAYLOR 

Foreman   in   Horticulture.    New    York    Agricultural    Kxpcriiiimt   Station, 

Geneva,  X.   Y. 


Xext  in  importance  to  the  strawberry  in 
New  York  State  is  the  raspberry.  The  area 
devoted  to  this  crop,  11,057  acres,  is  nearly 
equal  to  the  combined  area  .devoted  to  all 
the  other  small  fruits;  but  the  yield  in 
quarts,  14,751,940,  and  its  value,  $1,168,- 
062,  is  slightly  below  the  yield  and  value  of 
the  strawberry.  New  York  ranks  first  of 
all  the  states  of  the  Union  in  the  area  and 
value  of  raspberries.  Unfortunately,  there 

are  no  figures  available  at  present  as  to  the  different  classes  of 
raspberries,  the  red,  black,  and  purple  all  being  grouped  under 
one  heading  in  the  last  census. 

The  area  for  each  county  is  given  in  the  table  on  page  1367 
Ontario,  Wayne,  and  Yates  lead,  each  with  over  12DO  acres,  while 
the  counties  of  Erie,  Ulster,  Schuyler,  Monroe,  Chautauqua, 
Oswego,  and  Niagara  follow  in  order  named,  varying  from  908 
acres  to  805  acres.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  three  most 
important  raspberry  sections  of  the  state  are  in  the  counties 
bordering  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario,  near  the  western  group 
of  the  Finger  Lakes  in  central  New  York,  and  in  the  Hudson 
Valley. 

RED  RASPBERRIES 
LOCATION   AND  SOIL 

The  red  raspberry  closely  follows  the  strawberry  in  season  and 
is  the  most  popular  of  the  bush  fruits.  It  may  be  grown  in  most 
locations  and  on  many  types  of  soils.  In  exposed  localities,  plants 
may  suffer  unless  protected.  Both  a  minimum  distance  to  market 
and  good  roads  are  desirable,  as  the  fruit  is  too  soft  for  rough 
handling.  Poorly  drained  soils  and  stiff  clays  should  be  avoided. 

[1353] 


1354  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  465. —  HEEBEET  RED  EASPBEEBY 


RASPBERRIES  1355 

Lighter,  wanner  soils,  well  stocked  with  humus  and  retentive  of 
moisture,  are  preferable.  Most  of  the  plantations  of  western 
New  York  are  on  sandy  and  gravelly  loams. 

MANURE  AND  FERTILIZERS 

Moderate  annual  applications  of  stable  manure  and  commercial 
fertilizers  are  usually  beneficial.  Fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen 
should  be  used  with  care  to  avoid  overstimulating  the  plants.  The 
amount  of  plant  food  already  in  the  soil  is  an  unknown  and  vari- 
able quantity,  and  exact  specifications  as  to  kind  and  amount  of 
supplemental  fertilizers  to  be  used  cannot  be  given  accurately. 
Such  questions  should  be  worked  out  on  the  different  soils  by  trials 
of  the  different  materials,  using  (1)  400  pounds  acid  phosphate 
per  acre;  (2)  phosphate  as  above  and  200  pounds  muriate  of 
potash;  (3)  phosphate  and  potash  as  above  and  150  pounds  nitrate 
of  soda;  (4)  8  tons  of  good  stable  manure.  These  should  be 
applied  in  plats,  leaving  a  plat  unfertilized,  similar  in  size  and 
character  to  the  others,  as  a  check.  Stable  manure  should  be 
applied  in  November,  during  the  winter,  or  in  early  spring,  while 
commercial  fertilizers  should  be  applied  early  in  the  spring. 
Applications  need  not  be  so  heavy  as  with  currants  or  gooseberries. 

PROPAGATION 

Red  raspberries  are  usually  increased  by  digging  up  and  trans- 
planting the  numerous  suckers  which  develop  along  the  plant  row. 
A  part  of  the  root  system  should  be  dug  with  each  sucker.  The 
dormant  tops  are  usually  cut  back  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
root. 

CULTURE 

The  best  plants  obtainable  should  be  secured,  and  they  may  be 
set  either  in  the  fall  or  spring.  The  rows  of  plants  set  in  the  fall 
should  be  backfurrowed  or  the  plants  should  be  protected  over 
winter.  In  the  spring  the  plants  should  be  set  early.  Summer 
planting  is  sometimes  practiced,  usually  in  May,  the  young  suckers 
(four  to  eight  inches  high)  being  transplanted  during  cloudy  or 
wet  weather.  Plants  should  be  set  slightly  deeper  than  they  grew. 

The  spacing  of  rows  and  plants  depends  on  character  of  soil, 
on  variety,  and  on  the  method  of  culture.  Red  raspberries  are 


1356  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

usually  set  in  rows  six  to  seven  feet  apart  with  plants  two  or  three 
feet  apart  in  the  row.  Some  growers  prefer  eight  feet  between 
rows  to  permit  of  cultivation  with  a  team.  The  plants  soon  form  a. 
continuous  row.  If  grown  in  hills,  the  plants  are  set  about  five 
feet  apart  each  way. 

Cultivation  should  begin  early  and  l>e  repeated  often  enough 
to  maintain  a  mellow  soil  condition.  After  harvest  the  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  worked  and  a  cover  crop  sown,  using  either 
about  fifteen  pounds  clover  seed  per  acre  or  twenty-five  pounds 
of  vetch,  or  about  one  bushel  of  oats  or  barley.  Mixtures  of  the 
seed  are  sometimes  used  to  advantage.  A  hoed  crop  may  be  grown 
between  the  rows  the  first  year.  Cultivation  close  to  the  plants 
should  be  shallow. 

The  fruiting  canes  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  as  soon 
as  the  crop  of  fruit  has  been  harvested,  thinning  out  the  surplus 
canes  the  following  spring  to  from  four  to  six  canes  per  bush, 
depending  on  conditions.  Xo  further  summer  pruning  is  required 
with  red  raspberries.  In  the  spring  the  canes  should  be  cut  back 
to  a  desired  fruiting  height,  usually  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
ground,  depending  on  their  vigor. 

In  most  parts  of  the  state  no  trellis  is  used,  but  in  some  locali- 
ties the  bushes  are  staked  when  grown  in  hills,  or  a  wire  trellis 
is  used,  stretching  one  wire  on  each  side  of  the  row.  Red  rasp- 
berries are  usually  sufficiently  hardy  to  need  no  winter  protection. 
In  certain  parts  of  the  state,  however,  and  with  some  varieties, 
the  canes  are  given  some  degree  of  winter  protection  by  bending 
them  down  and  covering  them  more  or  less  with  earth  or  coarse, 
strawy  mulching. 

INSECTS 

Fortunately,  but  few  insects  infest  the  red  raspberry.  The  fol- 
lowing are  those  most  commonly  found  in  various  sections  of  the 
state. 

Snowy  Tree-Cricket 

This  insect  makes  a  row  of  punctures  about  two  inches  long  in 
the  cane  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  when  that  part  of  the  cane 
above  the  puncture  either  dies  or  is  so  weakened  as  to  prevent 
the  normal  development  of  the  fruit.  The  only  satisfactory  rem- 
edy is  to  gather  and  burn  the  infested  canes  containing  the  eggs. 


RASPBERRIES 


FIG.  466. —  CUTHBERT  RED  RASPBERRY 


1358  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  ^EW  YORK  STATE 

Raspberry  Cane-Borer 

In  June,  eggs  are  laid  singly  by  small  beetles  in  the  young 
shoots,  about  six  inches  from  the  tips  of  the  canes.  Two  rows 
of  punctures  encircling  the  cane  are  made,  one  below  and  another 
above  the  egg.  The  girdling  results  in  a  withering  or  drooping 
of  the  ends  of  the  young  shoots.  After  natching,  the  borer  eats  its 
way  downward.  The  wilted  tips  should  be  cut  off  well  below  the 
girdled  spot,  and  some  of  the  older  borers  may  be  destroyed  by 
cutting  and  burning  the  old  fruiting  canes  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has 
been  harvested. 

Raspberry  Saw  fly 

Eggs  are  laid  in  May  or  early  June  within  the  tissue  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  by  small,  dark-colored  flies.  After  hatch- 
ing, the  larvae  eat  away  the  leaf  tissue.  They  are  pale  green, 
thickly  covered  with  whitish  spines.  The  larvae  may  be  readily 
destroyed  by  arsenical  sprays ;  or,  if  near  harvest  time,  the  plants 
may  be  dusted  or  sprayed  with  hellebore.  In  the  latter  case  use 
one  ounce  of  hellebore  per  gallon  of  water. 

Red  Spider 

In  dry  seasons,  small,  yellowish-red  mites  are  sometimes  found 
in  large  numbers,  infesting  the  foliage.  A  spray  of  soap  and 
nicotine  extract  will  kill  all  that  are  hit  by  the  spray.  Severe 
rains  usually  keep  the  mites  in  check  so  that  they  are  not  often 
numerous  enough  to  require  a  spray  treatment. 

DISEASES 

Cane  Blight 

The  leaves  wilt  and  the  canes  die  as  the  fruit  reaches  maturity. 
The  wood  becomes  discolored  in  large  or  small  patches,  often  en- 
circling the  cane.  Cut  out  and  burn  infested  canes;  set  only 
healthy  plants ;  remove  fruiting  canes  at  once  after  harvest ;  give 
the  best  of  cultural  treatment ;  make  frequent  renewals  of  planta- 
tions. 

Yellows 

Plants  are  dwarfish  or  stunted  in  growth,  the  foliage  is  a 
mottled,  yellowish-green,  and  the  fruit  does  not  mature  properly, 
becoming  dry  and  insipid.  The  cause  is  unknown  and  no  remedy 
suggested  except  renewal  of  plantations. 


RASPBERRIES  1359 

Root-knot  or  Crown  Gall 

This  disease  is  especially  destructive  to  red  raspberries.  Its 
presence  is  indicated  by  rough,  knotty,  swellings  or  bunches, 
usually  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  on  the  roots  beneath. 
There  is  no  satisfactory  treatment.  All  infested  plants  should  be 
discarded  at  planting  time,  and  plants  should  not  be  set  on  ground 
known  to  be  infested  with  this  disease. 


HANDLING  AND  MARKETING   THE  FRUIT 

Red  raspberries  may  produce  anywhere  from  four  to  eight  or 
ten  good  crops,  depending  on  conditions.  The  berries  are  usually 
marketed  in  quart  boxes  which  are  placed  in  crates  of  various 
sizes,  the  average  holding  32  quarts.  Some  markets,  however, 
prefer  the  pint  boxes.  The  fruit  when  picked  should  be  fully 
ripe,  but  still  firm.  It  deteriorates  rapidly  after  picking,  and 
should  not  be  harvested  while  wet,  as  it  soon  becomes  soft,  dull  in 
color,  and  loses  much  of  its  delightful  flavor.  Yields  of  red  rasp- 
berries are  usually  less  than  those  of  the  other  bush-fruits.  They 
vary  from  1,400  to  2,000  quarts  per  acre,  and  the  selling  price 
varies  from  eight  to  sixteen  cents  per  quart,  a  price  higher  than 
for  the  other  bush-fruits. 

VARIETIES 

"  Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen.'7  Most  of  the  varieties 
available  may  be  characterized  by  their  faults.  Few  of  them  have 
any  commercial  value.  Adaptation  should  be  determined  before 
planting  largely,  as  varieties  may  succeed  in  one  place  and  be 
failures  in  other  locations.  We  may  determine  what  varieties  to 
set  by  observation  of  the  kinds  doing  well  in  the  immediate  locality 
under  apparently  similar  conditions,  and  by  a  trial  of  a  few  plants 
before  setting  extensively.  The  list  given  is  only  suggestive.  It 
includes  those  of  most  importance  in  this  state. 

The  June,  a  variety  originating  at  the  Experiment  Station, 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  is  already  assuming  commercial  importance  in 
parts  of  the  state  on  account  of  its  earliness,  large  size,  attractive 
appearance,  and  productiveness.  Perfection,  also  an  early  variety, 
is  popular  in  the  Hudson  Valley.  Marlboro  has  long  been  the 
leading  early  variety,  but  its  culture  is  on  the  decline.  Herbert 
is  a  wonderfully  productive  variety,  of  large  size,  but  somewhat 


1360  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

soft  for  shipping.  Cuthbert  is  the  best  known  and  most  widely 
planted  of  all  varieties,  and  is  the  most  satisfactory  late  red  rasp- 
berry. 

Cuthbert. —  Late;  most  popular  throughout  the  state;  season 
long. 

Herbert. —  Late  midseason ;  larger,  softer,  and  more  productive 
than  Cuthbert. 

June. —  Very  early ;  productive ;  long  season ;  fruit  large ;  ships 
well.  The  most  valuable  early  variety.  Originated  at  Experi- 
ment Station,  Geneva,  X.  Y. 

Marlboro. —  Early ;  plants  dwarfish ;  fruit  firm,  sometimes 
crumbles. 

Marldon. —  Season  short,  just  before  Cuthbert ;  bushes  vigorous, 
very  productive;  berries  large,  attractive,  bright  red;  a  new, 
promising  variety  originating  at  Experiment  Station,  Geneva, 
X.  Y.  Disseminated  in  1909.  Plants  soon  available  from  nurs- 
erymen and  growers. 

Perfection. —  Early ;  bushes  stocky,  productive ;  berries  large, 

attractive  red. 

BLACK  RASPBERRIES 

LOCATION  AND  SOIL 

The  black  raspberry  is  grown  less  extensively  over  the  state  as 
a  whole  than  is  the  red  raspberry,  yet  in  certain  counties,  includ- 
ing Yates,  Wayne,  Ontario,  and  Monroe,  it  may  be  found  in  large 
areas.  In  some  localities  its  culture  is  on  the  decline,  owing  to 
the  ravages  of  the  disease  known  as  anthracnose.  It  is  slightly 
less  hardy  than  the  red  raspberry,  but  stands  the  wear  and  tear  of 
handling  and  shipping  much  better  than  either  the  red  or  the 
purple  raspberry.  The  soil  requirements  are  quite  similar  to  those 
of  red  raspberries.  In  western  New  York,  however,  its  preference 
for  the  lighter  soils  is  more  marked  than  with  red  raspberries. 

MANURE   AND   FERTILIZERS 

The  statements  as  given  for  red  raspberries  will  apply  equally 
well  for  the  black  raspberry.  The  root  system,  however,  is  more 
shallow,  and  the  plants  are  more  quickly  affected  by  a  lack  of  plant 
food  or  of  sufficient  moisture.  The  wood  should  be  encouraged  to 
mature  early  in  the  fall  to  withstand  better  the  extremes  of  win- 
ter temperature. 


RASPBEERIES 


13G1 


FIG.  467. —  KANSAS  BLACK  RASPBERRY 


1362  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

PROPAGATION 

Black  raspberries  are  propagated  by  means  of  tip-layers,  and 
better  plants  are  secured  from  two-year-old  and  three-year-old 
bushes  than  from  yearlings  or  from  the  older  plantations.  The 
tips  are  usually  ready  for  layering  about  the  middle  of  August, 
depending  on  the  season,  at  which  time  they  begin  to  thicken. 
The  tips  take  root  readily  if  buried  about  three  inches  deep  in 
moist  soil.  The  tips  are  usually  well  rooted  by  the  close  of  the 
growing  season  and  are  transplanted  the  following  spring,  sever- 
ing the  cane  about  six  inches  from  the  tip,  thus  leaving  a  con- 
venient handle. 

CULTURE 

The  culture  of  black  raspberries  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  red 
raspberries.  Strong,  healthy  plants  with  a  good  root  system  are 
set,  preferably,  in  the  spring.  They  are  set  rather  shallow,  especi- 
ally in  the  heavier  soils ;  or,  if  set  in  shallow  furrows,  should  be  cov- 
ered lightly  at  first  to  avoid  smothering  the  young  buds,  gradually 
filling  in  during  the  season  as  growth  develops.  The  new  shoots 
which  start  early  should  not  be  broken  off  during  the  process  of 
setting  the  plants. 

Black  raspberries  are  set  at  slightly  wider  distances  than  the 
reds  — -  7  feet  by  3%  feet  or  from  five  to  six  feet  apart  each  way. 
They  seldom,  if  ever,  develop  suckers.  Cultivation  is  similar  to 
that  for  red  raspberries  but  should  not  be  deep  enough  to  injure 
the  shallow  root-system;  a  hoed  crop  may  be  grown  between  the 
rows  the  first  year,  and  cover  crops  should  be  used  as  with  red 
raspberries. 

Black  raspberries  require  more  severe  pruning  than  reds.  The 
old  fruiting  canes  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been 
harvested.  Additional  summer  pruning  consists  in  stopping  the 
new  growth  at  a  height  of  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  from 
the  ground  by  removing  or  pinching  off  the  succulent  tip.  This 
is  done  the  last  of  June  or  in  July.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go 
over  the  plantation  several  times  to  stop  all  the  growth  at  the  de- 
sired height.  In  the  spring,  the  lateral  branches  which  develop  are 
shortened  back  from  one-third  to  one-half  their  growth,  depending 
on  vigor  and  on  the  variety,  and  the  canes  are  thinned  out  to  from 
three  to  six  per  hill. 


RASPBERRIES  1363 

No  trellis  is  used  in  most  plantations;  vet  in  some  localities  the 
two-wire  trellis  is  used  as  described  under  red  raspberries,  page 
1  .">.")(>.  Winter  protection  is  given  in  sections  requiring  such 
treatment,  as  the  black  raspberry  is  slightly  more  tender  than  the 
red  raspberry. 

INSECTS 

The  insects  already  described  as  attacking  red  raspberries  — 
the  snowy  tree-cricket,  raspberry  cane-borer,  raspberry  sawfly,  and 
the  red  spider  —  also  attack  black  raspberries,  and  their  discus- 
sion is  given  under  red  raspberries,  pages  13r>r>  and  1358. 

DISEASES 

Tune  blight  and  yellows  have  been  described  under  red  rasp- 
berries, page  1358.  In  addition  to  these  are  the  following. 

Anthracrwse 

This  is  one  the  most  serious  diseases  of  black  raspberries. 
Grayish-brown  spots  or  patches  develop  on  the  plants,  especially 
on  the  canes.  Red  raspberries  are  seldom  attacked  by  this  dis- 
ease. The  plants  are  greatly  weakened,  if  not  killed  outright. 
Although  bordeaux  mixture  is  a  preventive,  the  .increased  yield 
secured  by  spraying  is  usually  not  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  cost  of 
spraying.  The  following  measures  are  suggested: 

Plants  should  have  a  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  and  air, 
and  should  not  be  crowded.  Remove  the  old  wood  and  the  worst 
of  the  diseased  canes  soon  after  harvest.  Make  -frequent  plant- 
ings on  fresh  land,  selecting  only  healthy  plants  for  setting.  Give 
the  best  of  care,  both  in  cultivation  and  in  feeding  the  plants,  to 
secure  maximum  results  early  in  the  life  of  the  plantation. 


Orange 

This  is  a  most  serious  disease  of  both  black  raspberries  and 
blackberries,  seldom  troubling  red  raspberries.  The  yellowish- 
green  foliage,  checking  of  growth,  and  the  orange-red  color  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves  are  indications  of  the  presence  of  the 
disease.  The  only  treatment  is  to  dig  and  burn  infested  plants'  as 
soon  as  the  disease  is  detected. 
13 


1364 


THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  468. —  GREGG  BLACK  RASPBEEEY 


HASPBEBBIES  1365 

IIAM)I.I.\(;   AND    .MAIJ.K1  TIX<;    THE  FKUIT 

The  profitable  life  of  black  raspberry  plantations  cannot  be 
accurately  stated,  but  it  is  less  than  that  of  red  raspberries. 
Disease  or  winter  injury  may  cut  it  short.  The  plants  often  bear 
no  more  than  four  crops,  although  sometimes  more,  and  are  usually 
removed  every  six  or  eight  years.  Yields  vary  from  1,600  to  2,400 
quarts  per  acre,  averaging  higher  than  those  of  red  raspberries. 
The  selling  price  for  the  fresh  fruit  is  less  than  for  red  raspberries, 
averaging  between  five  and  nine  cents  per  quart.  The  same  rules 
that  apply  in  harvesting  red  raspberries  apply  to  black  raspberries, 
although  the  fruit  is  firmer  and  will  keep  longer  in  good  condition. 
It  is  usually  handled  in  quart  boxes.  The  season  of  black  rasp- 
berries in  western  Xew  York  begins  the  first  weBk  in  July,  and  is 
shorter  than  that  of  red  raspberries. 

The  black  raspberry  is  the  only  one  of  the  small  fruits  which  is 
evaporated  to  any  great  extent.  The  berries  are  picked  by  hand  or 
are  batted  off  the  bushes  into  canvas  tray  harvesters  after  they 
become  fully  ripe.  The  yield  of  dried  fruit  per  bushel  of  green 
fruit  varies;  with  the  variety  and  the  season.  From  two  to  four 
quarts  of  fresh  fruit  are  usually  required  to  make  one  pound  of 
dried  fruit,  or,  one  bushel  (32  quarts)  of  'fresh  fruit  will  make 
about  ten  pounds  dried  fruit.  The  price  for  evaporated  stock 
varies  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents  per  pound.  Six  cents  per 
quart  for  fresh  fruit  is  considered  a  fair  price  in  comparison  with 
the  amount  received  for  the  dried  product. 

VARIETIES 

The  method  of  determining  what  varieties  of  black  raspberries 
to  set  is  the  same  as  with  red  raspberries.  Much  of  the  -fruit, 
however,  is  evaporated,  as  well  as  being  sold  in  the  fresh  state.  If 
grown  for  evaporation,  the  variety  should  not  only  be  productive, 
hardy,  and  healthy,  but  the  fruit  should  be  of  fair  size,  should  not 
contain  too  much  moisture,  should  be  easily  batted  from  the 
hushes  if  that  method  of  harvesting  is  used,  should  ripen  the  most 
of  the  fruit  at  one  time,  and  should  be  firm  enough  and  of  such 
a  color  as  to  make  a  pleasing  appearance  after  being  evaporated. 

The  Ohio  has  long  been  a  leading  variety  for  this  purpose,  and 
the  Kansas  is  also  largely  grown,  both  for  evaporating  and  for 


1366  THE  FKUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  .\E\V  YORK  STATE 

selling  in  the  fresh  state.  Gregg  is  a  good  late  berry  of  large  size 
lacking  in  yield.  In  the  western  part  of  the  state,  Cumberland, 
Palmer,  Kansas,  and  Diamond  are  the  leading  varieties.  Plum 
Farmer  has  recently  been  planted  with  good  results.  The  follow- 
ing list  comprises  the  best  known  kinds  of  the  state : 

Cumberland. —  Midseason ;  standard,  large,  well-colored :  de- 
sirable. 

Diamond.—  Midseason ;  very  productive ;  partial  to  localities. 

Eureka. —  Early ;  good  size  and  color ;  not  of  highest  quality. 

Gregg. —  Late;  large;  lacks  productiveness;  high  quality. 

Kansas. — Early;  very  productive;  fruit  large,  glossy  black, 
sweet ;  standard. 

Palmer. —  Early;  productive;  medium  size;  standard. 

Plum  Farmer. —  Early  rnidseason ;  very  productive  ;  highly  re- 
garded for  commercial  planting. 

PURPLE  RASPBERRIES 

Purple  raspberries  are  hybrids  between  red  and  black  rasp- 
berries. They  resemble  the  black  raspberry  more  than  the  red, 
and  their  soil  requirements  and  methods  of  culture  are  very  simi- 
lar to  those  for  black  raspberries.  The  plants  are  very  productive. 
The  fruit  is  not  very  attractive  in  color  and  lacks  somewhat  in 
firmness.  The  berries  are  too  tart  to  be  pleasant  for  dessert  in 
the  fresh  state,  but  when  cooked  the  sauce  is  very  acceptable. 

Shaffer  and  Columbian  are  the  leading  varieties,  the  Columbian 
being  more  popular  on  account  of  its  firmness.  The  Columbian 
is  largely  planted  in  Erie  County,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  Mon- 
roe County.  It  is  in  demand  at  canneries  and  also  to  some  extent 
for  evaporation.  The  season  of  purple  raspberries  is  somewhat 
later  than  most  of  the  reds,  starting  about  the  middle  of  July  in 
western  Xew  York,  and  lasting  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days. 


RASPBEBRIES  13G7 

ACREAGE  AND  VIELD  OF  KASPBEKKIES  IN  ,\KW  YOKK  STATK,  r,v  (  OTMIKS 
(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 


County 

Acres 

Quarts 

Albany  

2->7 

251  .4111 

Alleganv   

6 

10,940 

Broonic   

4S 

4.1,  41  3 

(  'attarauuus  

51 

84,462 

(  'avuga  

73 

100,363 

riiautauqua    

517 

700,087 

Chemung  

82 

63,824 

riienango  

23 

24,663 

Clinton   

5 

5,524 

(  'iiliimbia  

153 

202,083 

(  'ort  land   

33 

31,601 

Delaware  

14 

18,467 

Dutches*    

21 

43,612 

Krie  

oos 

1,277,766 

Ks<e\    

10 

14,132 

Franklin   

1!) 

22,260 

Ktillon   

24 

29,373 

(  iencsee   

44 

80,028 

(  Jreene   

23 

30.211 

Hamilton  

2 

375 

1  lerkimer  

:  is 

19,860 

Jefferson  

31 

30,005 

Kind's    

l.e\vis  

4 

5,383 

\A\  illusion  

108 

138,332 

Madison  

08 

110,753 

Monroe  

602 

951,895 

Montgomery     

38 

45,454 

Nassau   

9 

1,458 

New  York    

Niagara    

305 

475,720 

Oneida  

4S 

67,269 

(  hiondaaa   

143 

318,712 

Ontario  

1  ,  007 

2,560,565 

Orange  

156 

274,352 

Orleans   

83 

105,157 

Oswego  

316 

354,126 

Otsego  

58 

78,269 

Putnam    

I 

795 

Queens  

Rensselaer   

105 

139,650 

Richmond  

6 

4,920 

Kockland  

17 

23,458 

St.  Lawrence  

16 

13,478 

Saratoga  

71 

70,088 

Schenectadv  

58 

67,561 

Hchoharie  

.                68 

91,256 

Schuvler  

650 

546,605 

Seneca    

20 

32,070 

Steuhen  

170 

138,172 

Suffolk    

13 

12,503 

Sullivan  

6 

10,846 

Tioga  

30 

29,038 

1368  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


County 
Tompkins 

Acres 

36 

Quarts 
31   708 

Ulster 

707 

1   214  514 

Warren 

13 

9  853 

Washington  .  .            .  .                 .... 

17 

90  435 

Wavne       .                 

1,552 

2  81°  •>!)•> 

Westchester  .  .                    

!,-> 

14  033 

\Vvoniincr 

48 

>0  06) 

Yates 

1  9'?5 

x  -,  4   517 

The  State  . 

11,057 

14.751.940 

THE  BLACKBERRY  AND  DEWBERRY 


Feed  him  with  apricocks  and  dewberries.    ..." 

MIDSUMMER-NIGHT'S  DREAM  III,   1:169 

[1369] 


BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES 
O.  M.  TAYLOB 

Foreman  in  Horticulture,   New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

(Jcn.'va,  X.   Y. 

niackbcrries  and  dewberries  arc  surpassed  in  commercial  im- 
portance in  this  state  by  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  currants, 
in  the  order  named;  yet  they  have  considerable  value  in  certain 
parts  of  the  state.  The  1010  census  places  the  state  acreage  at 
1,951,  the  yield  at  2.509,851  quarts,  and  their  value,  $210,986. 
The  largest  plantings  are  found  in  the  counties  of  Niagara,  1'lster, 
Monroe,  Albany,  and  Chautauqua  in  the  order  named.  But  few, 
if  any,  plantations  are  found  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  state. 

This  fruit  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  local  markets  and  for  home 
use.  It  is  somewhat  in  disfavor,  partly  on  account  of  lack  of 
hardiness,  but  largely  because  the  fruit  is  mostly  picked  before 
fully  ripe  and  before  the  delicious  sprightliness  of  the  flesh  is 

properly  developed. 

• 

LOCATION  AND  SOIL 

Blackberries  are  somewhat  less  hardy  than  raspberries,  and  if 
.possible  should  be  given  a  more  sheltered  location.  If  picked 
when  fully  ripe,  the  fruit  may  not  carry  well  over  long  distances. 
Most  varieties  do  well  in  a  deep,  moist,  but  well-drained  sandy  or 
clay  loam,  but  an  excess  of  nitrogen  may  result  in  immature  wood, 
followed  by  winter  injury.  The  extreme  types  of  soil  should  be 
avoided.  Plants  are  a  failure  on  a  wet  soil. 

The  new  growth  of  dewberries  should  receive  some  winter  pro- 
tection, and  thus  may  be  grown  in  more  exposed  localities.  Dew- 
berries succeed  best,  however,  on  camparatively  light,  sandy  loams. 

MANURE   AND   FERTILIZERS 

The  blackberry  does  not  vary  much  from  the  raspberry  in  its 
food  -requirements,  and  the  suggestions  given  for  red  raspberries, 
page  1355,  will  apply  to  this  fruit.  It  is  important,  however,  to 
avoid  overstimulation  with  nitrogen.  For  this  reason  muck  soils 
should  be  avoided,  as  they  usually  contain  too  much  nitrogen, 

[1371] 


1372  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  469. —  SXYDEB  BLACKBERRY 


BLACKBERRIES   AND   DEWBERRIES  1373 

The  older  plantations  will  bear  heavier  applications  of  plant  food 
than  those  which  are  younger,  but  the  danger  of  winter  injury 
resulting  from  an  immature  excess  of  growth  must  be  kept  in 
mind  and  the  plants  be  fed  accordingly. 

PROPAGATION 

IJlackberrios  may  be  propagated  by  suckers  as  described  under 
red  raspberries,  page  l'J."».\  <>r  by  root  cuttings.  Plants  from  root 
cuttings  are  usually  preferred,  as  they  have  a  larger  and  more 
fibrous  root  system.  Roots  one-eighth  of  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter  are  cut  into  about  four-inch  lengths  —  usually  in  the 
fall  —  stratified  in  sand  over  winter,  and  sown  three  or  four  inches 
apart  in  nursery  rows  in  the  spring.  By  this  method  good  plants 
may  he  secured  in  from  one  to  two  years.  Commercial  growers 
usually  increase  their  plantations  by  digging  up  the  suckers  which 
develop  along  the  rows. 

Dewberries  are  propagated  by  tip-layers  as  described  under 
black  raspberries,  page  l-'JUi'. 

Blackberry  plants  may  be  set  either  in  fall  or  spring.  If  set 
before  winter,  the  rows  should  be  back-furrowed  to  prevent  heav- 
ing. The  plants  should  be  set  fully  as  deep  or  slightly  deeper 
than  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  Dewberries  should  be  set  in 
spring  as  described  for  black  raspberries,  page  1362. 

CULTURE 

The  distance  between  plants  is  governed  partly  by  method  of 
culture  and  partly  by  the  richness  of  soil  and  the  variety.  The 
bushes  make  a  dense,  thorny  growth  which  should  not  be  crowded. 
Blackberries  require  more  room  than  raspberries  —  eight  feet  by 
three  feet  if  intended  for  matted  rows,  or,  if  kept  in  hills,  the  dis- 
tance may  be  from  eight  feet  by  four  feet  to  seven  or  eight  feet 
apart  each  way. 

The  spacing  of  dewberry  plants  depends  on  the  method  of  train- 
ing: if  grown  in  hills  and  staked,  about  four  feet  by  four  feet;  if 
trained  on  a-  trellis,  about  six  feet  by  three  feet.  After  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil,  the  land  may  be  marked  both  ways  and  a 
furrow  opened  one  way,  the  plants  being  set  at  the  intersection  of 
the  cross  mark  with  the  furrow,  or  they  may  be  set  with  a  spade 
after  the  ground  has  been  marked. 


137-t  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK  STATE 

Cultivation  should  be  thorough,  as  described  for  raspberries, 
page  1356,  and  cover  crops  may  be  used  as  desired.  Intensive 
cultivation  is  especially  important,  as  the  fruit  matures  later  than 
most  of  the  other  small  fruits  at  a  season  when  droughts  may  be 
expected.  Hoed  crops  may  be  planted  between  the  rows  the  first 
year. 

The  pruning  of  blackberries  is  similar  to  that  described  under 
black  raspberries,  page  1346,  except  that  the  summer  pruning  is 
made  at  a  .slightly  lower  height.  If  the  plants  are  grown  in  hills 
and  staked,  however,  the  new  growth  is  not  pinched  back  in  the 
summer.  Practices  differ  in  regard  to  cutting  back  the  laterals  in 
the  spring,  good  crops  often  being  secured  without  any  heading-in 
of  the  lateral  branches. 

The  vinelike  growth  of  dewberries  must  be  supported  by  stakes 
or  trellis.  The  new  growth  is  not  pinched  back  in  summer  but  is 
allowed  to  run  on  the  ground  along  the  row,  and  is  thinned  out, 
tied  up,  and  cut  back  to  the  desired  length  the  following  spring. 
A  convenient  trellis  is  made  by  stretching  two  wires,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  row,  fastened  to  end  stakes  and  supported  at  intervals 
by  stakes,  the  wires  being  tied  together  at  convenient  distances  by 
twine.  In  other  cases  either  one  wire  or  two  wires,  one  above  the 
other,  are  stretched  along  the  row  and  the  canes  tied  directly  to 
the  wires.  Blackberries  are  grown  both  with  and  without  trellis, 
using  either  stakes  or  wires  as  already  described. 

INSECTS 

The  canes  of  blackberries  are  often  injured  considerably  by  the 
snowy  tree-cricket,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  by  the  raspberry  cane- 
borer.  In  some  seasons  the  foliage  may  be  infested  by  the  rasp- 
berry sawfly  and  the  red  spider. 

All  of  these  insects  are  discussed  under  red  raspberries,  page 
1356,  and  need  no  repetition. 

DISEASES 

Anthracnose  and  orange  rust  often  cause  considerable  loss  to 
blackberry  growers.  The  plants  are  also  attacked  to  a  lesser  extent 
by  cane  blight,  yellows,  and  root-knot.  These  diseases  are  de- 
scribed under  red  or  black  raspberries,  pages  1358,  1359,  and 
1363.  Dewberries  are  as  a  rule  somewhat  less  subject  to  attacks 
of  insects  or  diseases  than  are  blackberries. 


BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES 


1375 


FIG.  470. —  MCDONALD  DEWBEBRT 


1376  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  FRUIT 

The  yield  of  blackberries  may  vary,  from  two  thousand  quarts 
to  three  thousand  quarts  per  acre;  dewberries  yield  considerably 
less  than  blackberries.  Plantations  of  blackberries  usually  last 
from  five  to  ten  years,  which  is  longer  than  black  raspberries, 
although  half  a  dozen  good  crops  are  about  as  much  as  can  be 
expected.  Dewberries  are  usually  slow  in  developing  and  generally 
persist  longer  than  any  of  the  other  classes  of  berries  mentioned. 
Quart  boxes  are  used  in  picking  blackberries  and  dewberries, 
and  the  same  care  exercised  in  picking  and  handling  red  rasp- 
berries apply  to  these  fruits.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
flavor  and  quality  are  not  at  their  best  until  the  fruit  is  too 
soft  to  stand  rough  handling  or  to  be  shipped  any  distance.  The 
season  of  blackberries  is  later  than  most  of  the  bush  -fruits,  begin- 
ning the  middle  or  latter  part  of  July.  Dewberries  mature 
slightly  in  advance  of  blackberries. 

VARIETIES 

The  method  of  determining  what  varieties  to  plant  should  be 
similar  to  that  described  for  raspberries,  as  the  different  varieties 
have  unlike  values  under  different  conditions.  In  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  state  only  the  hardiest  varieties  should  be  planted.  The 
Snyder  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  all  varieties,  though  not  the  best, 
lacking  in  size  and  often  in  attractiveness  of  color.  Agawam, 
Briton,  and  Eldorado  are  hardy  or  nearly  so,  and  much  better 
than  Snyder,  both  in  size  and  quality.  The  earliest  kinds  usually 
lack  in  yield.  Mersereau  and  Erie  are  desirable  kinds,  the  Tatter 
being  popular  in  parts  of  Monroe  County.  The  two  best  known 
varieties  throughout  the  state  are  the  Snyder  and  Eldorado. 
Blowers,  Ward,  Kathbun,  and  Chautauqua  are  grown  to  a  limited 
extent. 

Among  dewberries  the  Lucretia  easily  heads  the  list  wherever 
this  fruit  is  grown.  The  other  kinds  named  are  worthy  of  trial. 

,  Blackberries 

Agawam. —  Medium  early ;  long  season ;  hardy,  very  productive. 
Briton  (Ancient  Briton). —  Season  medium;  very  productive, 
mild,  high  quality,  medium  size. 


BLACKBERRIES   ANT>    DEWBERRIES  1377 

Eldorado. —  Medium  early ;  hardy  ;  large  fruit ;  desirable. 

Erie. —  Midseason  ;  vigorous,  fairly  hardy ;  berries  attractive 
color. 

Kittatinny. —  Late  midseason ;  vigorous  but  not  very  hardy , 
berries  large,  attractive  black. 

Mcrsereau. —  Late;  not  always  hardy;  large;  desirable. 

New  Rochelle. —  Late ;  old  variety  ;  usually  hardy  ;  vigorous. 

Snyder. —  Midseason ;  usually  hardy ;  berries  small. 

Dewberries 

Lucrelia. —  Early ;  berries  attractive,  black,  large,  long ;  the 
most  popular  variety. 

Premo,  Mayes,  and  McDonald  should  be  tested  in  a  small  way. 


THE  CURRANT 


" .    .    .    currant*.  hn)i(/hi(i  from  their  leafless  stems, 
In  scant;/  strings,  had  tempted  to  o'erleap 
The  broken  wall." 

WORDSWORTH'S  EXCURSION 
[1379] 


CURRANTS 

O.    M.   TAYLOR 

Foreman  in  Horticulture,  New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 

New  York  State  ranks  first  of  all  the  United  States  in  the  pro- 
duction of  currants.  The  census  report  of  1910  indicates  the 
plantings  at  2,557  acres,  yielding  3,982,389  quarts,  valued  at 
$264,051.  Currants  rank  third  in  importance  in  the  state,  being 
surpassed  by  strawberries  and  raspberries.  By  far  the  largest 
plantings  are  in  Niagara  County,  followed  in  order  named  by 
Ulster,  Monroe,  Albany,  and  Chautauqua.  The  hardy  nature  of 
the  plant  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  the  reports  indicate  its 
being  grown  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  fifty-eight  counties,  as 
it  is  able  to  withstand  winter  injury  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 
state.  At  present,  however,  its  culture  is  slightly  on  the  decline, 
owing  largely  to  the  unfavorable  condition  of  the  markets  during 
the  past  few  years. 

LOCATION    AND    SOIL 

Currants  are  by  nature  northern  plants.  They  do  not  thrive  in 
the  heat  of  the  South  and  are  there  of  no  commercial  importance. 
They  are  found  growing  successfully  only  in  cooler  climates,  and 
are  uninjured  in  low  temperatures  which  are  fatal  to  many  other 
plants.  They  thrive  best  in  the  north  temperate  regions,  in 
northern  exposures,  on  cool,  moist,  retentive  soils  —  not,  how- 
ever, wet  and  cold  —  and  under  some  conditions  in  the  partial 
shade  of  orchard  trees  or  vineyards.  While  some  fruit  may  be 
obtained  on  almost  any  soil,  the  heavier,  well-drained  clay  loams 
should  be  selected  for  commercial  purposes,  avoiding  as  far  as 
possible  those  of  a  light,  sandy  nature. 

MANURE    AND    FERTILIZERS 

There  is  but  little  danger  of  too  much  plant  food  in  the  soil. 
Currants  are  rank  feeders,  and  to  secure  maximum  yields  a  rich 
soil  and  liberal  applications  of  available  food  are  essential.  The 

[13811 


1382  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

roots  extend  but  a  short  distance  and  their  food  must  be  within 
reach.  Stable  manure  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  and  should  be 
applied  preferably  in  November  or  during  the  winter  or  in  early 
spring. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  commercial  fertilizer  to  use  depend 
on  conditions.  The  food  requirements  of  the  currant  are  not 
materially  different  from  those  of  other  fruits,  and  the  supple- 
ments needed  on  any  soil  are  best  determined  by  individual  ex- 
periments with  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  leaving 
checks  so  that  benefits,  if  any,  may  be  apparent.  The  following 
amounts  are  suggestive:  two  to  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of 
nitrate  of  soda  or  three  to  six  hundred  pounds  dried  blood  applied 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  have  unfolded ;  one  ton  of  wood  ashes  or  two 
to  three  hundred  pounds  muriate  of  potash ;  six  to  seven  hundred 
pounds  acid  phosphate  —  all  to  be  applied  early  in  the  spring. 
The  fertilizers  will  not  take  the  place  of  humus. 

PROPAGATION 

Currants  are  easily  propagated.  In  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
have  dropped,  usually  in  late  September  or  early  October,  hard- 
wood cuttings  from  six  to  ten  inches  long  —  the  longer  cuttings 
being  preferred  for  dry  soils  —  are  made  from  well-ripened  wood 
of  one  season's  growth.  They  may  be  planted  at  once  in  the  nur- 
sery row  or  tied  in  bundles  and  buried  butt  end  up  in  moist  sand 
or  moss  to  callous  for  a  few  weeks,  after  which  they  are  planted ; 
or  they  may  remain  in  the  sand  until  early  spring.  The  cuttings 
are  planted  deeply,  leaving  but  one  or  two  buds  above  the  surface 
and  placing  them  from  four  to.  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If 
fall-planted,  they  must  receive  winter  protection,  either  with  a 
slight  backfurrow  of  earth  or  with  a  covering  of  coarse  stable 
manure  or  straw  applied  after  the  ground  freezes. 

The  cuttings  are  left  in  nursery  rows  from  one  to  two  years.  A 
few  plants  are  occasionally  propagated  from  layers,  the  canes 
being  bent  down  and  a  portion  covered  Avith  earth,  leaving  the 
tips  exposed.  Roots  soon  develop  from  the  covered  cane,  which 
may  then  be  separated  from  the  main  bush  and  planted  in  a 
permanent  location. 


(  ICRBANTS 


1383 


138-1  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW   YORK  STATE 

CULTURE 

Strong  one-year  or  two-year-old  plants  may  be  set  either  in  fall 
cr  spring.  The  buds  start  growth  early,  and  for  this  reason  fall 
planting  is  preferable.  The  distance  between  rows  and  plants 
depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  habit  of  growth  of 
the  variety.  The  usual  distance  for  most  varieties  is  six  by  four 
or  five  feet,  the  wider  distance  being  preferable.  Six  by  six  feet 
is  none  too  far  for  some  varieties.  Black  currants  should  be  given 
more  room  than  reds,  on  account  of  their  vigor.  After  marking 
the  ground  both  ways  the  plants  may  be  set  rapidly  by  plowing  a 
deep  furrow  one  way  and  setting  the  plants  at  the  intersection  of 
furrow  and  mark,  placing  them  slightly  deeper  than  they  stood  in 
the  nursery  row. 


FIG.  472. —  CURRANTS  ON  FARM  OF  WILLIAM  HOTALINO.  KINDERIIOOK,  X.  Y. 

As  the  root  system  is  shallow,  cultivation  should  not  be  deep 
near  the  plants.  For  family  use,  currants  succeed  fairly  well 
mulched  with  coal  ashes,  >straw,  or  coarse  stable  manure.  Thor- 
ough and  frequent  cultivation  is  preferable.  After  the  crop  has 
been  harvested,  the  soil  should  be  put  in  condition  for  a  cover  crop 
to  be  sown  in  late  July  or  early  August,  using  about  fifteen  pounds 


CURRANTS  1385 

clover  seed  per  acre  or  twenty-five  pounds  vetch,  or  about  one 
bushel  of  oats  or  barley.  Mixtures  of  the  seed  are  sometimes  used 
to  advantage.  A  hoed  crop  may  be  grown  between  the  plants  the 
tirst  year. 

Systematic  pruning  is  essential.  The  best  fruit  is  borne  at  the 
base  of  one-year-old  shoots  and  on  one-year-old  spurs  which  de- 
velop from  the  two-  and  three-year-old  wood.  Most  of  the  wood 
over  three  years  old  should  be  cut  out  and  only  enough  of  the 
yearling  wood  left  to  maintain  a  yearly  supply  of  the  younger 
wood.  From  five  to  eight  canes  are  usually  sufficient  per  bush. 
Most  bushes  are  left  too  thick.  An  upright,  yet  open,  habit  should 
be  encouraged.  It  is  usually  unnecessary  to  head  back  the  new 
canes  except  those  making  a  long,  irregular  growth,  but  it  is  often 
an  advantage  to  cut  back  very  vigorous  shoots.  Pruning  may  be 
done  any  time  after  the  leaves  have  dropped  up  to  the  time  growth 
starts  in  the  spring.  The  fruit  of  black  currants  is  borne  on  wood 
of  the  previous  year.  At  time  of  setting,  the  tops  and  roots  are 
usually  shortened  back  from  one-third  to  one-half,  depending  on 
the  amount  of  growth. 

SPRAYING 

Disease  or  insect  pests  are  to  be  expected  each  year.  Fortu- 
nately, both  may  often  be  treated  at  one  application  by  using  the 
proper  materials.  The  bushes  should  be  sprayed  with  a  combined 
insecticide  and  fungicide  soon  after  the  fruit  begins  to  swell,  and 
again  with  a  fungicide  after  the  fruit  has  been  harvested. 

INSECTS 
Currant  Worm 

The  foliage  is  attacked  by  the  worms,  of  which  two  broods  a 
year  hatch  from  eggs  laid  on  .the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The 
worms  are  easily  killed  with  an  arsenical  spray  such  as  arsenate 
of  lead,  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons,  applied  as  soon  as  they  make 
their  appearance,  usually  when  the  fruit  is  half  grown.  This 
spray  should  be  combined  with  a  fungicide  —  either  bordeaux 
mixture,  3-3-50  formula,  or  lime-sulphur  1  to  40.  Powdered 
hellebore  is  sometimes  used  —  a  teaspoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water. 


1386  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

( '  ii  >'/-((  n(  Jiorrr 

This  insect  eats  a  burrow  along  the  center  of  the  cane  and  re- 
mains in  this  tunnel  over  winter.  The  infested  canes  should  be 
cut  out  and  burned  during  the  winter  or  early  spring. 

San  Jose  Scale 

This  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  It  should  re- 
ceive the  same  dormant  treatment  as  other  fruits  —  lime-sulphur, 
1  to  8,  or  one  of  the  oil  sprays. 

Currant  Plant  Louse 

Many  small  lice  may  be  found  011  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves  in  midsummer,  causing  them  to  appear  blistered  and  red- 
dish on  the  upper  surface.  They  are  sucking  insects.  Whale-oil 
soap,  1  pound  to  5  gallons  of  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion  applied 
to  the  under  side  of  the  foliage  will  kill  all  that  are  hit  with  the 
mixture. 

BISK ASKS 

Leaf-Spot 

Leaf  spot  is  a  fungous  disease  causing  a  brown  spotting  of  the 
foliage,  the  leaves  often  dropping  prematurely.  Remedy:  Limo- 
sulphur,  1  to  40,  or  bordeaux  mixture,  3-3-50,  applied  at  time  of 
spraying  for  worms  and  again  after  harvest. 

Cane-Blight 

Cane-blight  is  a  fungous  disease  that  is  quite  destructive  in  the 
Hudson  Valley.  One  or  more  canes  die  during  the  summer,  or  the 
death  of  the  entire  bush  follows.  There  is  no  satisfactory  remedy. 

HANDLING    AND    MARKETING    THE    FRUIT 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  currants  cannot  be  expected  to  pro- 
duce profitable  crops  for  more  than  eight  or  ten  years,  although 
some  fields  may  be  held  for  a  longer  period.  Old  bushes  may 
sometimes  be  rejuvenated  by  cutting  off  all  the  canes  close  to  the 
ground  and  giving  a  liberal  application 'of  stable  manure. 

The  fruit  must  be  picked  and  handled  with  care  to  arrive  at  its 
destination  in  good  condition.  The  berries  should  be  dry  when 


CURRANTS  1387 

harvested  and  not  overripe.  The  stems  should  be  severed  from  llic 
bushes  without  injury  to  the  berries.  Some  varieties  are  more 
easily  picked  than  others,  on  account  of  the  clear  space  of  stems  at 
the  base  of  the  clusters.  Fruit  fs  picked  greener  for  distant  mar- 
kets than  for  nearby  markets  and  greener  for  jelly  than  for  can- 
ning, a  few  green  berries  show  ing  on  each  cluster.  Currants  are 
usually  marketed  in  quart  baskets  or  in  grape  baskets  and  are 
sold  mostly  by  the  pound. 

Yields  of  currants  vary  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty 
bushels  per  acre  with  an  average  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  bushels  annually.  Some  fruit  will  be  secured  the 
third  year,  but  a  full  crop  will  not  be  produced  until  the  fourth 
year.  Black  currants  usually  yield  slightly  less  than  reds. 

Mi-.  Samuel  Fraser,  Geneseo,  X.  Y.,  reports  that  the  cost  of 
growing  and  selling  a  three-ton  crop  of  currants  is  nearly  $200 
per  acre.  The  price  received  usually  varies  from  four  to  eight 
cents  per  pound,  averaging  about  five  cents.  In  recent  years  the 
tendency  of  market  prices  has  been  downward.  Most  of  the  fruit 
goes  to  canning  and  jelly  factories,  and  is  used  largely  for  making 
jelly,  jam,  and  pies. 

VARIETIES 

A  variety  may  succeed  in  one  place  and  yet  b^-undesirable  in 
another  locality.  Adaptation  should  be  determined  as  with  all 
fruits  before  planting  extensively.  But  few  of  over  thirty  va- 
rieties on  the  grounds  of  the  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
have  any  commercial  value. 

The  commercial  culture  of  currants  in  this  state  is  practically 
confined  to  red  currants,  largely  on  account  of  their  fine  jelly- 
making  properties.  The  whites  make  a  jelly  unattractive  in  ap- 
pearance, and  the  berries  are  not  very  good  shippers.  The  pecu- 
liar flavor  of  the  black  currant  is  objectionable  to  many  people, 
and  the  market  demand  is  limited. 

Currants  begin  ripening  at  Geneva  the  last  week  in  June,  and 
the  varieties  succeed  each  other  during  a  period  of  three  weeks. 
There  are  no  very  early  or  very  late  popular  commercial  varieties, 
most  kinds -maturing  in  midseason.  With  some  varieties  the  fruit 
hangs  on  the  bushes  for  a  week  or  more  after  maturity  without 
much  deterioration.  Preference  is  given  to  those  varieties  having 


1388  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

a  berry  of  at  least  fairly  good  size  up  to  those  of  largest  size. 
Cherry,  Fay,  and  Red  Cross  are  among  the  most  popular  of  the 
medium  early  and  midseason  varieties,  and  Wilder  follows  closely 
as  a  later  midseason  variety.  Perfection  is  grown  commercially, 
the  fruit  being  most  attractive  in  appearance,  though  the  bushes 
might  well  be  taller.  Filler  is  grown  considerably  in  the  Hudson 
valley.  Of  all  varieties  the  Wilder  is  doubtless  found  planted 
throughout  the  state  more  extensively  than  any  other  variety. 

Red  Currants 

Cherry. —  Large ;  clusters  short ;  productive ;  standard. 

Fay. —  Sprawling  habit ;  large ;  medium  productive. 

Filler. —  Productive ;  bunches  short ;  berries  large. 

Perfection. —  Bush  more  upright  than  Fay,  medium  in  vigor ; 
large  berries,  high  quality. 

Red  Cross. —  Large ;  milder  and  slightly  later  than  Cherry. 

Red  Dutch. —  Growth  good  :  sprightly  acid ;  dark  red ;  medium 
size. 

Wilder. —  Good  late  variety ;  vigorous ;  fruit  large ;  long  season ; 
standard. 

White  Currants 

White   Imperial. —  Mild,   high   quality   for   dessert ;    pleasant 
flavor. 

White  Grape. —  Large ;  attractive  color ;  medium  quality. 

Black  Currants 

Champian. —  Mild,  nearly  sweet. 

Prince  of  Wales. —  Very  productive,  mild,  sweet ;  vigorous. 
Boskoop  Giant. —  Very  promising;  large  berries,  long  clusters; 
productive ;  one  of  the  best. 


THE  GOOSEBERRY 


The  gooseberry  trees  that  shot  in  long  lank  slips." 

WORDSWORTH'S  EXCURSION 

[13891 


GOOSEBERRIES 

O.   M.  TAYLOR 

Foreman    in    Horticulture,    Nr.w     York     Agricultural    Experiment    Station, 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 

The  gooseberry  is  not  grown  extensively  anywhere  in  the  1'nited 
States.  Xe\v  York  State  ranks  fifth  in  the  commercial  importance 
of  the  fruit,  and  when  compared  with  the  other  small  fruits  the 
gooseberry  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  list  with  an  area  according  to 
the  last  census  of  2.V.)  acres,  producing  .'J:>l,lor>  quarts  valued  at 
$23,427.  This  neglect  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  in  this  coun- 
try the  most  of  the  fruit  is  used  while  green,  before  its  flavor  has 
developed.  In  England,  where  the  climate  is  somewhat  more 
congenial  for  the  maturing  of  the  fruit,  it  is  a  popular  class  of 
fruit  for  dessert  purposes.  Were  people  in  this  country  generally 
more  familiar  with  the  delightful  flavor  and  high  quality  of 
the  matured  fruit  of  some  of  the  European  and  hybrid  varieties, 
which  can  be  grown  in  many  places,  an  additional  outlet  for  the 
fruit  would  soon  be  developed. 

Ulster  is  the  leading  gooseberry  county  in  New  York  State, 
followed  by  Orange.  About  equal  areas  are  given  to  -this 
fruit  in  the  counties  of  Chautauqua,  Monroe,  and  Niagara,  with 
slightly  smaller  plantings  in  Columbia.  It  is,  however,  found  in 
small  beds  in  nearly  all  the  counties  of  the  state. 

LOCATION    AND    SOIL 

Gooseberries  are  among  the  hardiest  of  the  small  fruits,  being 
found  growing  wild  in  some  forms  nearly  to  the  Arctic  Circle. 
They  closely  resemble  currants  in  many  of  their  requirements, 
and  like  them  prefer  a  cool  soil  of  rather  heavy,  clay-loamy  type. 
Sandy  soils  which  become  hot  and  which  dry  out  quickly  should, 
be  avoided.  Partial  shade  from  orchard  trees  or  vineyards  gives 
some  relief  from  sun  and  wind.  Coolness  and  moisture  are  im- 
portant essentials,  especially  with  the  English  varieties. 

[1391] 


1392  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


FIG.  473. —  DOWNING  GOOSEBERRY 


GOOSEBERRIES  1 '  5  n : ; 

MANURE  AM)  FERTILIZERS 

.The  soil  should  contain  an  abundance  of  available  plant  food, 
and  there  is  but  little  danger  of  its  being  too  rich.  Annual 
applications  of  stable  manure  applied  during  the  dormant  season 
or  in  early  spring  are  beneficial,  and  applications  of  commercial 
fertilizers  may  be  made  as  described  under  currants,  page  1382. 
Gooseberries  are  gross  feeders,  and  the  materials  used  by  them 
should  be  within  reach  of  the  comparatively  small  and  shallow 
root  system. 

PROPAGATION 

American  varieties  of  gooseberries  may  be  propagated  with 
fairly  good  results  by  using  cuttings  as  described  under  currants, 
page  1382.  The  European  kinds,  however,  do  not  root  readily, 
and  for  these  mound-layering  is  resorted  to,  which  method  is  also 
followed  to  some  extent  for  the  American  varieties.  The  tops  01 
the  bushes  are  cut  back  severely  during  the  dormant  period.  This 
results  in  the  development  of  many  young  shoots  the  following 
season.  About  the  middle  of  July  the  earth  is  drawn  up  around 
and  among  these  shoots,  leaving  only  the  upper  portions  exposed. 

Shoots  of  most  of  the  American  varieties  will  have  developed 
a  good  root  system  by  fall,  but  most  European  varieties  require 
two  years  to  become  well  rooted.  The  rooted  shooTs  are  cut  away 
from  the  old  plants  and  are  set  in  nursery  rows  for  one  or  two 
years,  depending  on  their  vigor. 

CULTURE 

Fall-setting  is  usually  preferred  for  gooseberry  plants,  although 
they  may  be  planted  with  good  results  in  the  spring  if  the  work  is 
done  early.  They  should  be  set  about  six  feet  by  four  feet  for 
the  small-growing  varieties,  while  six  feet  by  six  feet  will  not 
be  too  wide  for  those  of  vigorous  habit.  The  method  of  setting 
the  plants  is  similar  to  that  described  under  currant,  page  1384, 
as  is  also  the  subsequent  treatment  of  cultivation  and  cover  crops. 
The  plants  must  have  thorough  cultivation,  and  shallow,  but  fre- 
quent, as  the  gooseberry  is  subject  to  greater  injury  from  drouth 
than  is  the  currant. 

Plants  may  be  pruned  any  time  during  the  dormant  period. 
The  bush  form  is  usually  preferable  to  the  tree  form.  Five  or  six 
shoots,  well  distributed,  usually  make  a  well-shaped  top.  Fruit 


1394  THE  Fur  IT  LXDUSTKY  L\  XE\V  YOKK  STATE 


FIG.  474. —  INDUSTRY  GOOSEBERRY 


GOOSEBERRIES  1395 

is  developed  on  one-year-old  wood  and  from  spurs  on  the  older 
branches.  The  oldest  wood  should  gradually  be  removed  to  give 
place  to  the  younger,  more  vigorous  shoots.  Young  shoots  are 
headed  hack  as  desired;  the  center  should  be  open,  yet  not  too 
much  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  or  injury  from  scald  may  result, 
while  branches  tending  to  touch  the  ground  should  he  removed 
to  give  a  better  circulation  of  air. 

SPRAYING 

To  secure  best  results,  gooseberries  should  be  sprayed  annually. 
The  foliage  is  subject  to  attacks  of  the  currant  worm  and  to  leaf- 
spot.  These  are  fully  discussed  under  currants,  pages  1385  and 
I."»si5.  It  is  especially  important  with  gooseberries  that  the  foliage 
1  e  preserved,  as  the  fruit  should  be  well  protected  by  the  leaves  to 
prevent  siinscald. 

M  I  LDKW 

This  disease  in.iy  attack  leaves,  twigs,  or  fruit  of  the  European 
varieties.  Patches  and  spots  of  moldy,  weblike  covering  appear, 
which  at  iirst  are  light  gray  but  which  turn  a  brownish  color. 
The  bushes  become  stunted,  and  the  fruit  is  worthless  for  market 
when  infested.  This  disease  usually  yields  to  repeated  applica- 
tions of  potassium  sulphide  (liver  of  sulphur),  one  ounce  to  two 
gallons  water  applied  as  the  leaves  begin  to  open  and  repeated 
every  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  Lime-sulphur  is  a  promising  remedy 
and  worthy  of  test.  The  mildew  has  not  been  so  serious  in  recent 
years  as  in  the 'past. 

HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  FRUIT 

Harvests  may  be  expected  for  a  number  of  years,  much  depend- 
ing on  the  thoroughness  of  the  renewing  process  of  pruning.  Some 
plantations  have  given  good  crops  for  over  twenty  years,  but  most 
beds  are  discarded  after  ten  or  twelve  good  crops  have  been  secured. 
They  will  bear  some  fruit  the  second  year  from  planting,  and  a 
full  crop  may  bo  expected  the  fourth  year.  Most  of  the  goose- 
berries of  this  state  are  picked  green  and  disposed  of  at  canning 
factories.  The  market  demand  is  limited.  The  berries  are  usually 
stripped  from  the  bushes  —  a  difficult  operation  with  the  thornier 
varieties  —  and  run  through  a  fanning  mill  to  remove  the  leaves. 
For  the  markets  the  fruit  is  packed  in  quart  boxes  or  grape  bas- 
kets. Tho  custom  of  handling  it  green  prevents  the  mature  flavor 


1396  THE   FRUIT   INDUSTRY   IN   XEW   YORK    STATK 

and  quality  from  becoming  known,  although  some  of  the  European 
varieties  in  particular,  when  properly  ripened,  are  unusually  fine 
for  dessert  in  the  fresh  state. 

Yields  vary  widely,  but  mature  plants  set  6x4  may  yield  from 
two  hundred  to  four  hundred  bushels  per  -acre.  The  American 
varieties  are  usually  considered  more  productive  than  the 
Europeans,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Prices  range  from 
four  to  ten  cents  per  pound,  depending  on  variety  and  market 
conditions,  the  average  being  about  four  or  five  cents.  Prices 
in  recent  years  are  on  the  decline. 

VARIETIES 

Varieties  of  American  gooseberries  are  grown  much  more  ex1 
tensively  in  this  state  than  are  the  European  kinds.  The  lead- 
ing varieties  are  Downing,  Pearl,  and  Josselyn.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  hybrids  well  worthy  of  attention.  The  widest  vari- 
ations in  size  and  color  exist  among  the  classes.  Downing  is  the 
most  popular,  as  well  as  the  most  widely-planted  variety  of  the 
Americans,  and  Industry  leads  among  the  Europeans.  Chautauqua 
is  becoming  more  widely  planted.  The  American  varieties  average 
smaller  than  the  Europeans.  Houghton  and  Josselyn,  red  vari- 
eties, are  too  small  in  berry.  Pearl  is  very  similar  to  Downing. 
Plants  of  European  varieties  as  compared  with  Americans  are 
stockier,  with  shorter,  thicker,  more  upright  branches,  and  with 
thicker,  glossier  foliage,  the  fruit  usually  being  much  larger. 

American  Gooseberries 

Downing. —  Standard  ;  pale  green ;  excellent  flavor  and  quality  ; 
one  of  the  best. 

Josselyn. —  Pale  red ;  very  vigorous  ;  productive.    Berries  small. 

Pearl. —  Resembles  Downing. 

Poorman. —  Large  bushes;  productive.  Berries  medium  size, 
pinkish-red.  A  variety  of  promise,  worthy  of  test. 

European  Gooseberries 

Chautauqua. —  Pale  green;  excellent  flavor  and  quality. 
Industry. —  Very  productive;  dark  red;  high  quality;  one  of 

the  best,     v 

Whitesmith. —  Vigorous ;    pale   yellowish    green  ;    sweet ;    very 

good. 


(  rOOSEBEBBIES 


1307 


TOTAL  ACREAGE  AND  YIELD  OF  SMALL  FRUITS  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE  BY  COUNTIES 


(Taken  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910) 


Con  nl  ii 


Albany 

Allegany 

Broome 

Cattaraugus 

Cayuga  . 

Chautauqua 

Chemung 

Chenango 

Clinton 

Columbia 

Cortland 

Delaware 

Dutehess 

Erie 

Essex 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton 

Herkimer 

Jefferson 

Kings 

Lewis 

Livingston 

Madison 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

Nassau 

New    York 

Niagara 

Oneida 

Onondaga 

Ontario 

Orange 

Orleans 

Oswego 

Otsego 

Putnam 

Roekland 

Kensselaer 

Richmond 

Queens 

St.  Lawrence 

Saratoga 

Schenectady 

Schoharie 

Schuyler 

Seneca 

Steuben    .    . 

Suffolk 

Sullivan 

Tioga 


.Ir/r.s 

588 

31 

146 

137 

173 

993 

142 

56 

21 

620 

69 

43 

214 

1  ,603 

42 

79 

76 

95 

85 

3 

206 

122 

1 

34 

204 

212 

1  ,283 

89 

149 

9 

752 

193 

359 

2,182 

1,192 

236 

764 

132 

8 

108 

348 

90 

5 

70 

223 

156 

92 

701 

71 

271 

385 

22 

75 


Quarts 
821  ,241 

72  ,  359 
298,871 
255  .  9  1  s 
243  117 
1  ,  644  ,  853 
199,321 

78  ,  380 

30,947 
1  ,  274  ,  978 

81,873 

71  ,250 

591  ,  877 

3,070,452 

44,083 

66  ,  283 

179,470 

130,784 

131  ,  739 

2,072 

539  ,  848 

157  ,  002 

558 

58  ,  373 
326,  104 
302,446 
2,540,005 
117  ,489 
268,726 

51,100 

1,179,339 

382  ,  329 

862  ,253 

2,903,359 

1,727,892 

300,311 

1,477,157 

184,098 

14  ,  323 
165  ,  827 
715,791 
151  ,354 

21,164 

79,034 
371,609 
212,752 
119,041 
619,209 
112,510 
317  574 
563,395 

38,554 
127,480 


1398 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 


County 
Tompkins  

Acres 
101 

Ulster  

2  797 

Warren  

62 

Washington  

75 

Wayne  

2,011 

Westchester  

95 

Wyoming  , 

98 

Yates 

1  297 

The    State    . 

22.490 

Quarts 

154,434 

.371,934 

87,185 

134,382 

,558  505 

154,497 

121,538 

966,480 


37 , 857 , 829 


FRUITS  IN  THE   HOME 


"  80  doirn  we  sit,  though  not  till  each  had  cast 

I'lcased  looks  around  the  delicate  repast  — 

Rich  cream,  and  snoir-uyhite  eggs  fresh  from  the  nest, 

With  amber  honey  from   the  mountain's  breast; 

Strawberries  from  Jane  or  woodland,  offering  wild 

Of  children's  industry,   in   hillocks  piled; 

Cakes  for  the  nonce,  and  butter  fit  to  lie 

Upon  a  lordly  dish;  frank  hospitality 

}\'hcrc  simple  art   with   bounteous  nature  vied. 

And  cottage  comfort  shunned  not  seemly  pride." 

WORDSWORTH'S  EPISTLE 

[1399J 


THE  DIETETIC  VALUE  OF  FRUIT 

IDA  S.   HARRINGTON 
Farmers'  Institute  Lecturer,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

"  Fruits  that  shall  swell  in  sunny  June, 
And  redden  in  the  August  noon, 
And  drop,  when  gentle  airs  come  by, 
That  fan  the  blue  September  sky/' 

r—  UK  Y  ANT 

A  well-known  teacher  of  dietetics  has  said, 
"  Nothing  gives  me  so  great  a  sense  of 
health  and  well-being  as  to  have  a  supply  of 
fresh  fruit  within  reach!7' 

If  more  of  us  retained  that  same  inborn 
taste  for  simple  foods  and  natural  flavors,  the 
health  of  the  country  would  be  better  than  it 
is  today.  Not  that  we  scorn  fruit  wholly, 
but,  after  childhood  is  left  behind,  we  grow 
to  class  it  as  an  extra,  a  side^dish,  something 
that  —  as  one  woman  expressed  it  —  "  is 
nice  to  eat  when  you  have  had  all  you  want  of  other  things." 

Few  housewives  would  consider  that  they  had  shown  a  proper 
pride  in  their  table  if  they  set  before  their  families  as  a  dessert 
merely  a  dish  of  rosy  apples.  Something  impels  us  to  "  gild  the 
lily  "  and  to  make  that  dish  of  apples  over  into  a  pie  or  a  Brown 
Betty  pudding  before  offering  it  as  a  regular  course  in  the  meal. 
A  student  who  had  been  attending  a  summer  cooking  school 
remarked  on  her  return,  "  Every  student  there  seemed  possessed 
to  learn  the  making  of  fancy  desserts ;  I  got  so  that  I  just  longed 
for  a  plain  dish  of  berries !  "  Tt  is  human  nature  to  think  slight- 
iuuly  of  overfamiliar  things.  Not  unless  we  are  deprived  of  them  . 
do  we  value  our  "  plain  dish  of  berries  "  as  we  should. 

With  a  growing  sense  of  the  importance  of  a  balanced  ration 
for  human  beings,  we  shall  learn  that  we  cannot  belittle  the  die- 
tetic Vaiue  of  fruit  without  paying  an  inevitable  penalty.  No 
matter  if  it  would  take  seventy-five  pounds  of  strawberries  to  give 

[1401] 


1402  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  ix  XEW  YORK   STATE 

us  enough  protein  for  our  needed  daily  supply !  That  is  not  what 
we  eat  them  for.  It  is  not  the  function  of  fruit  to  build  tissue 
or  yield  energy,  but  to  help  the  body  make  the  best  use  of  the 
foods  which  exercise  this  function.  Fruits  have  a  dietetic  value 
rather  than  a  food  value;  in  other  words,  they  are  wholesome 
rather  than  nutritious.  Their  attractive  appearance  and  pleasant 
flavor  is  in  itself  a  benefit,  but  they  meet  more  important  needs 
than  these.  The  body  requires  mineral  matter,  and  fruits  fur- 
nish it  in  abundance;  it  requires  acids,  and  fruits  yield 
them  in  wholesome  form;  it  requires  enough  bulky,  indigestible 
food  to  stimulate  the  organs  of  elimination,  and  fruits  are  valu- 
able in  supplying  this  need.  Dr.  Langworthy  has  well  said, 
"  Intelligently  used,  fruits  are  a  valuable  part  of  a  well-balanced 
diet,  and  may  well  be  eaten  in  larger  quantities  than  at  present/' 

INTELLIGENT  USE  OF  FRUIT 

An  intelligent  use  of  any  food  means  that  its  use  must  be 
adapted  to  suit  the  requirements  of  those  who  are  fed.  Feeding 
fruit  indiscriminately  to  people  of  all  ages  and  conditions  would 
be  as  senseless  as  insisting  on  the  cold  plunge  bath  for  everybody 
at  all  seasons,  regardless  of  results.  Aside  from  individual  pe- 
culiarities (as  in  the  case  of  persons  who  are  poisoned  by  straw- 
berries) which  forbid  the  use  of  certain  fruits,  there  are  general 
rules  that  cannot  safely  be  overlooked.  The  woody  material 
known  as  cellulose,  which  acts  as  a  wholesome  intestinal  stimu- 
lant under  normal  conditions,  becomes  irritating  if  the  intestine 
is  oversensitive,  or  if  mastication  is  faulty. 

Both  conditions  must  be  considered  in  giving  fruit  to  young 
children.  Until  a  child  is  four  years  old,  it  is  best  restricted  to 
such  fruits  as  baked  apples  (carefully  skinned  and  cored),  apple 
sauce,  or  prune  pulp.  It  should  also  be  given  jellies  rather  than 
jam  or  marmalades,  since  in  the  last  two  there  is  abundant  chance 
for  mischief  from  skins  and  seeds. 

ACID  FRUITS 

Sensitive  digestions  may  be  affected  by  using  an  acid  fruit  at 
the  same  meal  with  cereals  and  milk.  Again  we  have  an  example 
in  young  children.  ^Yhile  orange  juice  may  safely  be  given  even 
before  the  child  is  one  year  old,  it  should  always  be  midway  be- 
tween the  regular  feedings  of  milk. 


THE   DIETETIC   VALUE  OF   FRUIT  1403 

MASTICATION    OF    KIM  I  Ts 

Digestive  troubles  are  often  ascribed  to  tlie  eating  of  fruits, 
when  the  trouble  is  wholly  due  to  the  swallowing  of  unchewed 
particles.  Kven  the  green  apple  would  be  less  deadly  than  it  is 
commonly  believed  to  be,  were  it  not  for  the  haste  with  which  it 
is  bolted  by  secret  f casters. 

UNRIPE  AND  OVERRIPE  FRUIT 

In  spite  of  what  has  just  been  said,  it  is  sometimes  a  dangerous 
experiment  to  eat  unripe  fruit  raw,  and  it  is  moreover  an  unneces- 
sary  one,  since  such  fruit  is  made  both  wholesome  and  palatable 
by  cooking.  Among  the  unripe  fruits  that  require  cooking,  few 
people  include  the  banana.  Yet  it  is  true  that  we  in  the  North 
often  get  them  green,  before  the  starch  in  them  has  even  begun 
to  be  changed  to  the  more  digestible  sugar.  In  this  condition  they 
are  suitable  for  cooking,  but  not  for  serving  raw. 

Fruit  that  is  overripe,  which  means  that  it  h&s  begun  to  fer- 
ment, is  not  a  safe  food,  and  there  is  no  economy  in  eating  it  "  to 
save  it."  The  saving  should  have  come  at  an  earlier  stage. 
Herein  lies  the  importance  of  canning  the  surplus  supply. 

SERVING  FRUIT  CLEAN     , 

If  fruit  is  to  be  eaten  raw,  it  is  especially  important  that  it  be 
clean.  This  may  seem  a  superfluous  caution  in  the  country, 
where  we  are  safe  from  the  infected  dust  of  city  markets.  Never- 
tlieless,  it  is  not  wise  to  disregard  wholly  the  much-quoted  theory 
of  Metchnikoff  that  harmful  parasites  or  their  eggs  may  be  carried 
to  the  intestines  from  raw  fruits  that  have  come  in  contact  with 
the  soil.  Apples  picked  from  one's  own  orchard,  or  grapes  from 
one's  own  vines,  may  be  considered  safe  Avithout  sacrificing  their 
bloom  by  washing ;  but  the  strawberry,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  it  grew  in  the  home  bed,  may  easily  be  tainted  with  fertilized 
soil  and  needs  careful  washing,  even  when  it  looks  clean.  Berries 
of  all  kinds  are  most  conveniently  washed,  after  they  have  been 
looked  over,  by  putting  them  into  a  colander  and  letting  water  run 
over  them ;  or,  failing  running  water  in  the  kitchen,  by  lowering 
the  colander  full  of  berries  into  a  bowl  of  cold  water,  and  raising 
it  up  a  number  of  times  so  that  the  water  flows  freely  over  the 
fruit.  It  will  be  necessarv  to  renew  the  water  several  times. 


1404  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK   STATE 

Berries  should  be  washed  as  short  a  time  as  possible  before  serv- 
ing and  should  be  well  drained.  Peaches  are  best  cleaned  by  wip- 
ing with  a  soft,  dry  cloth. 

A  dish  of  fruit  fresh  from  orchard,  garden,  or  vine  makes  a 
centerpiece  for  the  table  that  not  only  delights  the  eye  and  pleases 
the  palate,  but  contributes  materially  to  the  wholesomeness  of  the 
meal. 

COOKING   OF   FRUITS 

While  cooked  fruits  lack  something  of  the  perfection  of  fruits 
in  their  natural  state,  they  fill  an  important  place  in  planning  the 
dietary.  As  has  already  been  suggestedl  green  fruit  may  be  util- 
ized for  cooking,  with  excellent  results.  Imperfect  fruit,  unfit 
to  serve  raw,  may  still  yield  large  portions  that  are  suitable  for 
cooking.  We  may  be  planning  meals  for  someone  with  whom 
raw  fruit  disagrees,  while  cooked  fruit  is  beneficial.  We  are  able 
by  cooking  to  make  use  of  such  fruits  as  quinces,  cranberries,  etc., 
which  cannot  be  served  in  any  other  way;  or  it  may  be%  desirable, 
if  the  rest  of  the  meal  has  been  a  light  one,  to  provide  a  dessert 
that  shall  be  more  nourishing  than  fruit  alone  would  be.  This 
is  the  proper  function  of  the  many  combinations  of  fruit  and 
pastry,  fruit  and  custard,  and  fruit  and  batter,  which  are  known 
as  pies  and  puddings. 

DISHES    MADE    FROM    APPLES 

In  a  stats  that  grows  apples  as  generously  as  our  own,  house- 
wives have  a  great  advantage  in  planning  their  dietaries,  for  no 
other  one  fruit  is  so  generally  popular  or  so  widely  useful  as  the 
apple.  It  is  one  of  the  few  fruits  that  are  equally  good  cooked 
or  raw.  Baked  apples  are  welcomed  as  a  breakfast  or  supper 
dish ;  apple  sauce  is  as  acceptable  with  roast  pork  as  with  ginger- 
bread; apple  water  makes  a  refreshing  drink  for  the  invalid's 
tray.  Apples  lend  the  jelly-making  element  to  many  a  jelly  that 
parades  under  the  name  of  another  fruit.  The  number  of  recipes 
in  which  apples  are  included  mounts  up  into  the  hundreds.  It  is 
true  that  this  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that,  owing  to  their  keeping 
qualities,  apples  have  reigned  almost  alone  as  a  winter  fruit.  Xow 
that  successful  methods  of  home  canning  make  it  possible  to  keep 
all  kinds  of  fruit  for  winter  use,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  in 
many  of  the  apple  recipes  other  fruits  may  be  substituted  with 
.<rood  results,  as  will  be  shown. 


THE  DIETETIC  VALUE  OF  FRUIT  1405 


Remove  the  cores  from  apples  of  uniform  size.  Put  into  a 
baking  dish,  filling  the  hollows  with  sugar,  and  add  one-fourth  cup 
of  water.  Baste  with  sugar  and  water  as  needed.  The  oven 
should  be  moderate,  so  that  the  apples  will  not  cook  to  pieces. 
When  done,  cool  and  serve  with  or  without  sugar  and  cream. 

For  variety,  baked  pears  may  be  substituted.  They  are  baked 
whole,  and  are  best  when  cooked  in  a  bean  pot,  closely  covered, 
in  a  slow  oven,  and  sweetened  with  molasses  or  brown  sugar. 

Apple  Sauce 

This  may  be  cooked  in  the  oven  or  on  top  of  the  stove.  Wash, 
pare,  and  core  sour  apples.  For  paring,  use  a  very  bright  knife 
if  a  -silver  fruit  knife  is  not  at  hand.  Cut  the  apples  in  pieces  and 
put  them  in  a  saucepan  with  just  enough  water  to  keep  them  from 
burning.  Cook  till  very  soft,  stirring  with  a  wooden  spoon  and 
mashing  the  lumps.  Add  sugar  to  taste.  If  the  apples  lack 
flavor,  add  cinnamon  or  ginger  (stirred  into  the  sugar),  lemon 
juice,  or  lemon  rind,  and  a  small  piece  of  butter.  A  few  quinces 
make  a  pleasant  variety  in  flavor. 

When  apples  are  very  hard,  it  is  not  possible  to  use  them  raw 
as  pie  filling  and  expect  the  best  results.  Pastry  needs  a  quick 
oven  to  be  -at  its  best,  and  the  apples  will  be  found  underdone. 
The  following  recipe  will  be  found  useful  for  cases  of  this  kind  : 

Cooked  Apple  Filling  for  Pies 

4  cups  of  chopped  apple  (previously  cored  and  pared) 

2  level  tablespoons  cornstarch  stirred  till  smooth  in  %  cup  cold 

water 

Grated  rind  of  half  a  lemon 
1/2  cup  of  sugar 
%  teaspoon  cinnamon 
A  few  grains  of  salt 

Let  all  cook  gently  for  thirty  minutes.  Strain  and  cool.  This 
will  seem  thin  at  first,  but  will  thicken  as  it  cools. 


1406  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK   STATE 


r  Apple  FiU'nifj  for  Pies 
M.  W.  Howard 

3  cups  pared  and  sliced  apples 
1/2  cup  sugar 

%  teaspoon  salt 
^4  teaspoon  cinnamon 
1  tablespoon  butter 
Grated  rind  of  half  lemon. 

If  peaches  are  substituted,  omit  the  lemon  and  cinnamon  and 
add  2  tablespoons  of  water., 

Apple  Cake 

(Peaches  may  be  used  instead) 
1  pint  flour 
%  teaspoon  salt 

4  level  teaspoons  baking  powder 
14  cup  butter 

1  egg 

%  cup  milk 

4  apples  (or  more  as  needed) 

2  tablespoons  sugar 

Mix  and  sift  the  dry  ingredients.  Rub  in  -the  butter,  as  for 
biscuits  or  pastry.  Beat  the  egg,  add  the  milk  to  it,  and  add 
to  the  dry  ingredients.  Pour  into  a  pan  so  that  the  mixture  is  % 
inch  thick.  Pare  and  core  the  apples  and  cut  into  eighths.  Ar- 
range the  pieces  of  apple,  narrow  edge  down,  in  close  rows  on  top 
of  the  cake.  Sprinkle  with  sugar  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  twenty 
to  thirty  minutes.  If  the  apples  do  not  seem  quite  tender  when  the 
cake  is  done,  invert  a  tin  over  the  cake  after  taking  it  from  the 
oven  and  leave  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  This  will  soften  the  apples 
by  steaming. 

FKUIT    AND    NUT    PUDDING 
M.  W.  Howard 

(Use  peaches,  apples,  pears,  pineapples,  or  quinces) 

1  cup  sugar 

2  cups  fine  breadcrumbs 
1/2  CUP  chopped  nuts 


TlIK     DlKTKTir     VALTK    <>K     FlMTr  1407 

3  eggs 

2  tablespoons  lemon  juice 

1  ciij)  sugar 

2  cups  fruit 

!/4   teaspoonful  salt 

Mix  all  the  ingredients,  beat  well,  pour  into  a  buttered  dish  and 
steam  two  hours.  Serve  with  cream. 

FBUIT-AND-CORX STARCH   PUDDING 

Add  stewed  apples,  pears,  peaches,  berries,  quinces,  or  pineapple 
to  a  cornstareh  pudding  just  before  it  is  poured  into  the  mold. 
Strained  fruit- juice  may  be  used  in  place  of  milk  in  making  the 
pudding,  and  milk  or  cream  served  with  it  as  a  sauce. 

QUINCE  CUSTARD 

Pare,  core,  and  chop  the  quinces,  add  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice 
to  bring  out  the  ilavor.  Put  into  a  buttered  pudding  dish,  and 
cover  witli  a  well-sweetened  custard  in  which  the  yolks  and  whites 
of  the  eggs  have  been  beaten  separately.  Set  the  dish  inside  a  pan 
containing  a  little  water,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven  till  the  cus- 
tard is  set. 

FRUIT   SHORTCAKES 

There  is  no  question  that  the  strawberry  holds  first  place  as  fill- 
ing for  shortcake,  and  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  shortcake  is  the 
favorite  method  of  serving  such  strawberries  as  are  not  to  be  used 
in  their  natural  state. 

Shortcakes  may  also  be  made  of  peaches,  raspberries,  black 
berries,  or  pineapples. 

Straivberry  Shortcake. —  Sift  a  pint  of  flour  with  4  level  tea- 
spoons of  baking  powder  and  one  of  salt.  With  the  finger-tips 
rub  in  4  level  tablespoons  of  shortening.  Add  %  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  stirring  it  in  with  a  knife.  Roll  out  of  the  bowl  onto  a 
floured  board,  and  with  the  knife  pat  it  lightly  into  shape.  Roll 
out  and  cut  two  rounds  to  fit  a  layer-cake  tin.  Place  one  round 
in  the  greased  tin,  spread  the  top  with  melted  butter,  and  place 
the  second  round  over  it.  Bake  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  The 
two  rounds  will  come  apart  easily  because  of  the  butter  spread 
between  them. 


1408  THE  FEUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 

Cover  while  hot  with  strawberries  that  have  been  hulled,  washed, 
drained,  and  sweetened.  They  should  stand  on  the  very  back  of 
the  stove  while  the  cake  is  baking,  so  that  the  heat  may  help  to 
draw  out  the  juice.  Slightly  crush  the  berries  with  a  wooden 
potato  masher  after  putting  the  sugar  on,  but  reserve  some  whole 
ones  for  the  top  of  the  cake. 

FRUIT   MUFFINS 

Berries  may  be  added  to  any  muffin  mixture,  using  1  cup  of 
berries  to  every  two  cups  of  flour.  The  berries  are  added  last. 

SUMMER   ABUNDANCE    FOR    WINTER    NEEDS 

A  popular  magazine  is  publishing  a  series  of  article  entitled, 
"  Youth  Leads  the  Way."  A  recent  number  in  this  series  gave  a 
description  of  the  "  Canning  Girls, "  working  in  clubs  all  over 
the  country,  and  of  the  methods  and  successes.*  In  developing 
the  possibilities  of  this  great  canning  movement,  youth  is  indeed 
leading  the  way,  not  only  to  greater  efficiency  and  economy  in 
conserving  our  resources,  but  to  more  efficient  living.  When  fruits 
and  vegetables  become  a  matter  of  course  in  the  winter  dietary, 
there  will  be  less  "  sick  leave." 

While  housewives  have  always  prided  themselves  on  having 
well-stocked  preserve  cupboards,  we  must  guard  against  making 
the  filling  of  those  cupboards  an  end  in  itself.  The  family  must 
not  be  denied  a  free  use  of  fresh  fruit  in  its  season  in  order  that 
there  may  be  the  more  to  "  do  up."  Canning  is  important  in 
order  to  save  the  surplus,  but  it  is  more  important  in  insuring  a 
balanced  diet  for  the  family  the  year  round.  If  it  were  only  the 
filled  cans  we  care  about,  it  would  not  matter  so  seriously  what 
methods  we  employ.  We  might  even  permit  ourselves  the  use 
of  commercial  canning  powders  to  hide  the  effects  of  careless  work ; 
or  we  might  buy  "  bargain "  canned  goods  at  great  apparent 
saving  of  money  and  time.  But  since  it  is  for  the  building  up 
of  better  health  for  our  households  that  we  are  working,  the  com- 
mercial canning  powders  and  the  bargain  sales  and  the  careless 
methods  must  all  go. 


*  See  article  on  "  Canning  Suggestions  and  Canning  Clubs,"  in  Bulletin  62, 
Part  II,  published  by  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


THE  DIETETIC   VALUE  OF  FRUIT  1409 

So  much  has  been  published  about  home  preservation  of  fruits 
that  it  seems  out  of  place  to  do  more  than  briefly  review  the  dif- 
ferent processes  in  use,  and  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
each.  Whatever  process  is  used,  there  is  no  "  trade  secret "  about 
successful  canning.  It  is  a  mere  matter  of  making  things  clean  - 
not  ordinary  everyday  clean,  but  surgically  or  biologically  clean. 
It  depends  on  selecting  sound  fruit  or  removing  every  unsound 
spot;  it  depends  on  the  complete  destruction  by  heat  of  micro- 
organisms juxl  their  seeds  (spores)  on  and  in  fruit  and  jars;  and 
it  depends  on  complete  protection  against  the  entrance  of  micro- 
scopic destroyers  from  outside  the  jar,  after  all  has  been  made 
safe  within  it. 

For  home  purposes,  glass  jars  are  in  every  way  to  be  preferred 
to  tin  cans.  They  cost  more  to  start  with,  but  may  be  used  over 
and  over  again  with  only  the  addition  of  new  rubbers. 

THE   COLD   PACK   METHOD 

What  is  known  a"s  the  cold  pack  method  of  canning  is  being 
more  and  more  widely  used.  By  this  method  jars  are  filled  with 
uncooked  fruit,  jmd  jars  and  fruit  are  sterilized  in  one  operation. 
The  successive  steps  of  the  method  arc  ;is  follows: 

1.  Selection  of  sound,  slightly  underripe  fruifc— 

2.  HltiiH'liing  by  lowering  the  fruit,  which  has  been  placed  in 
a  wire  basket  or  cheesecloth,   into  boiling  water  and  allowing  it 
to  boil  for  five  minutes.      This  loosens  the  skin,  removes  objection- 
able acids,  starts  the  iiow  of  coloring  matter,  and  reduces  bulk. 

2-b.  Scalding  —  that  is,  pouring  boiling  water  over  the  fruit 
and  leaving  it  just  long  enough  to  loosen  the  skin  —  may  be  sub- 
stituted when  blanching  is  not  necessary. 

:'>.  I'linif/ing  in  cold  ivater  to  make  the  fruit  easier  to  handle, 
to  separate  the  skin,  to  set  the  color,  and  to  make  the  pulp  firmer. 

4.  Removing  tJie  skins. 

5.  Placing  the  fruit  in  a  solution  of  salt  and  water  (1  table- 
spoon to  a  quart  of  water)  to  prevent  discoloration  while  jars  are 
being  prepared. 

6.  Preparing  jars  by  examining  them  for  defects.     Test  them 
for  leakage,  wash,  rinse,  and  turn  upside  down  to  drain  without 
wiping. 


1410  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  is  XEW  YORK  STATE 

7.  Packing  jar*.     Use  wooden  paddle  for  packing  fruit  solidly 
without  crushing  it. 

8.  Preparing  glass  tops  by  examining  them  for  defects.     Rinse 
in  cold  water ;  do  not  wipe. 

9.  Testing    rubbers    (new)    by   stretching.      See   that   they   fit 
snugly.     Dip  in  cold  water,  adjust  011  jar,  place  the  glass  top,  and 
fasten  upper  clamp  only. 

10.  Letting  cold  water  run  over  the   fruit  in  the  jar  from  a 
faucet  or  pitcher.      Invert  a  small  strainer  over  the  top  of  the  jar 
while  rinsing  and  draining,  to  keep  the  fruit  from  being  floated 
out. 

11.  Draining  off  the  rinsing  water  by  inverting  the  jar.      The 
strainer  should  be  held  in  place  while  doing  this. 

12.  Filling  with  cold  water  or  cold  syrup  to  within  y±  inch  of 
the  top  of  the  jar. 

13.  Wiping  the  rim. 

14.  Sterilizing  by  placing  the  jars  of  fruit  in  a  wash  boiler  or 
pail  on  a  false  bottom  made  of  strips  of  wood  or  heavy  wire  netting. 
The  jars  must  not  touch  each  other  nor  the  boiler.     If  pints  and 
quarts  are  to  be  sterilized  at  the  same  time,  make  a  standard  from 
blocks  of  wood,  with  wire  netting  laid  across  them,  in  order  to  raise 
the  pint  jars  to  the  same  level  as  the  quarts.     Pour  cold  or  luke- 
warm water  into  the  boiler  until  it  reaches  the  necks  of  the  jars. 
Place  a  cheesecloth,  weighted  at  the  four  corners,  over  the  boiler, 
and  put  on  the  cover.      Count  \he  time  of  sterilization  from  the 
time  the  water  boils.     It  should  boil  hard. 

TIME-TABLE  —  HOT    WATER    CANNERS  —  COLD    PACKED 

Minutes  Size  of 

to  cook  cans 

Apple  cider 20  Special 

Apples 15                3 

Apricots 15                3 

Asparagus,  greens 60  2  or  3 

Beans  —  lima  and  string 90  2  or  3 

Beets 20               3 

Blackberries,  dewberries 8  2  or  3 

Cherries,  peaches 15                2 


THE  DIETETIC   VALUE  OF  FRUIT  1411 

Minutes  Size  of 

to  cook1  cans 

Chicken,  beef ^50  3 

Corn  without  acids 240  2 

Figs 30  3 

Fish,  pork 200  2 

drape  juice 15  2 

drapes,  pears,  plums 15  2 

Hominy 60  3 

Huckleberries 10  2 

Okra 60  2  or  3 

Okra  and  tomatoes  combined 50  2  or  3 

Oysters 50  1 

Peas  —  field 40  2 

Peas  —  garden  or  English 60  2 

Pineapple 30  2  or  3 

Pumpkin 50  3 

Quince 30  3 

Raspberries f          15  2  or  3 

Rhubarb 25  3 

Sauerkraut 50  3 

Sausage 60  2 

Spinach  and  other  greens ^.__        60  3 

Squash 40  3 

Strawberries 7  3 

Succotash 60  2  or  3 

Sweet  potatoes 80  3 

Tomato  juice 20  2 

Tomatoes 22  2  or  3 

Tomatoes  and  corn 80  2 

15.  Removing  the  jars  by  inserting  a  buttonhook  in  the  clamp 
of  glass-top  jars,  or  by  means  of  a  thick  holder  in  the  right  hand, 
having  a  second  holder  ready  in  the  left  hand  to  support  the  hot 
jar  as  it  is  taken  out. 

16.  Setting  the  jars  on  several  thicknesses  of  cloth,  fastening 
the  lower  clamps  and  inverting  the  jars  on  the  cloth,     Leave  in 
this  position  to  cool. 


1412  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  KEW  YORK  STATE 


Water-seal  outfits  and  steam  pressure  canners  are  modifications 
of  this  method. 

Advantages.  The  preparatory  work  may  he  done  outdoors. 
There  is  no  necessity  of  working  over  a  h6t  stove.  Materials  and 
utensils  are  handled  cold.  Jars  do  not  need  separate  sterilization. 
Fruits  keep  their  natural  color  and  are  not  cooked  to  pieces.  Re- 
sults  are  more  certain  than  by  other  methods. 

Objections.  Rubbers  may  work  out  during  the  sterilizing  proc- 
ess. This  is  always  caused  by  using  rubbers  of  poor  quality  and 
must  be  guarded  against.  Fruits  may  cook  down  so  that  the  jars 
are  not  full.  This  affects  only  the  appearance  —  not  the  keeping 
qualities  —  as  every  air-bubble  is  sterilized.  If  jars  are  opened  to 
refill  them  or  to  replace  rubbers,  it  is  safer  to  repeat  sterilization. 

RECIPES    FROM   THE   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT    OF  AGRICULTURE 

Windfall  Apples 

(NOTE.  —  For  canning  whole  apples,  choose  firm,  not  overripe 
apples.  A  great  difference  in  the  canned  products  will  be  noted  in 
the  different  varieties  of  apples.  The  recipe  below  is  intended  for 
firm,  and  preferably  tart,  varieties.  Some  varieties  will  require 
less  time,  and  some  more  than  is  here  indicated.  Experience  will 
teach  adjustment  of  time.) 

Remove  blemishes  and  cut  out  core.  Blanch  for  five  minutes 
in  boiling  water;  plunge  into  cold  water.  Pack  in  tin  cans  or 
glass  jars  and  add  very  thin  syrup  to  fill  spaces  in  the  can. 

To  make  the  syrup,  mix  one  and  one-half  pints  of  sugar  and  one 
pint  of  water,  and  heat  to  the  boiling  point. 

Adjust  rubber  and  top  on  glass  jars  and  close  loosely.  (Cap 
and  tip  cans.)  Sterilize  for  fifteen  minutes  in  hot-water  bath,  or 
thirteen  minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  or  ten  minutes  under  steam 
pressure,  or  six  minutes  in  pressure  cooker.  Remove  jars,  tighten 
covers,  and  invert  to  cool. 

If  the  apples  are  canned  in  this  way,  enormous  waste  will  be 
eliminated  and  the  product  will  be  available  for  apple  salads, 
dumplings,  breakfast  apple  dishes  and  the  like. 


THE  DIETETIC  VALUE  OF  FRUIT  1413 

Windfall  Apples  for  Pie  Filling 

Peel,  core,  and  slice  apples.  Scald  for  two  minutes  in  boiling 
water;  plunge  in  cold  water.  Pack  in  glass  or  tin  cans  and  add 
about  one  teacupful  of  hot,  thin  syrup  to  each  quart  can.  Adjust 
rubber  and  top  on  glass  can,  and  close  loosely.  (Cap  and  tip 
cans.)  Sterilize  for  sixteen  minutes  in  hot-water  bath,  or  twelve 
minutes  in  water-seal  outfit,  or  ten  minutes  under  five  pounds  of 
steam,  or  four  minutes  in  pressure  cooker.  Eemove  jars,  tighten 
covers,  and  invert  to  cool. 

The  fact  that  the  can  is  not  filled  with  liquid  in  no  way  inter- 
feres with  the  keeping  qualities  of  apples  canned  in  this  manner. 

OVEN  METHOD 

In  using  the  oven  method  of  canning,  the  jars  and  tops  must  be 
sterilized  by  boiling  at  least  twenty  minutes.  The  fruit,  prepared 
as  in  the  cold  pack  method,  is  packed  raw  into  the  jars,  and  the 
jars  are-  filled  to  overflowing  with  hot  syrup.  The  rubbers  are 
dipped  in  boiling  water  and  adjusted,  the  glass  tops  put  on,  and  the 
upper  clamp  fastened.  (If  screw-top  jars  are  used,  screw  as 
tightly  as  can  be  done  by  using  the  thumb  and  little  finger.)  Place 
in  a  moderate  oven  on  a  sheet  of  asbestos  paper  or  in  two  inches 
of  water  in  a  pan,  and  cook  twenty  minutes.-  Remove,  fasten 
lower  clamp,  or  tighten  screw  top,  and  treat  jars  as  in  cold  pack 
method. 

Advantages.  This  process  may  be  used  at  the  same  time  with 
the  cold  pack  or  other  methods,  if  the  object  is  to  get  large  quan- 
tities of  fruit  put  up  in  a  given  time. 

Objections.  Flavor  and  appearance  of  the  fruit  are  less  attract- 
ive than  by  the  cold  pack  method.  The  jars  require  separate  ster- 
ilization. The  process  is  costly  in  the  matter  of  fuel.  It  means 
working  in  a  hot  kitchen. 

Pears  Canned  in  the  Oven 
8  quarts  pears 
1  quart  sugar 
3  quarts  water 

Cover  the  bottom  of  the  oven  with  a  sheet  of  asbestos  paper. 
Sterilize  the  jars,  prepare  the  fruit,  fill  the  hot  jars  with  fruit  and 


141-1-  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN  XEW  YORK  STATE 

add  hot  syrup  till  jars  overflow.  Adjust  rubbers  and  tops  and 
fasten  upper  clamp.  Cook  in  the  oven  for  twenty  minutes.  Re- 
move and  proceed  as  in  cold  pack  method. 

Pears  and  peaches  require  about  one  pint  of  syrup  to  each  quart 
jar  of  fruit;  small  fruits,  like  currants,  require  about  one-half 
pint  to  each  quart  jar. 

FIEELESS  COOKER  METHOD 

Sterilize  jars  and  tops  as  in  the  preceding  method.  Pack  the 
fruit  raw  and  till  to  overflowing  with  boiling  syrup.  Dip  the  rub- 
bers in  boiling  water,  adjust  rubbers  and  tops,  and  fasten  both 
clamps.  (Or  fasten  the  screw-top  as  tight  as  possible.)  Without 
giving  the  jars  a  chance  to  cool,  set  them  in  the  fireless  cooker 
kettle  (which  has  been  previously  warmed)  and  fill  the  kettle 
entirely  full  of  boiling  water.  Close  the  kettle,  place  at  once  in 
the  fireless  cooker,  and  leave  over  night. 

Advantages.  Fruits  canned  by  this  method  most  closely  resem- 
ble fresh  fruits  in  color  and  flavor.  They  do  not  cook  away. 
They  require  no  attention  after  being  placed  in  the  cooker.  There 
is  great  saving  of  discomfort  from  heat.  It  takes  less  fuel  than 
any  other  method. 

Objections.  The  jars  require  separate  sterilization.  Unless 
the  cooker  is  very  large,  it  accommodates  only  a  limited  number 
of  jars  at  a  time.  The  process  is  slow. 

Whole  Peaches  Canned  in  the  Fireless  Cooker 

Loosen  the  skins  by  pouring  boiling  water  over  the  fruit. 
Plunge  it  into  cold  water  and  remove  the  skins,  being  careful 
not  to  pull  off  any  of  the  pulp.  Pack  into  sterilized  jars.  Use 
halves  to  fill  spaces,  having  the  curved  side  toward  the  outside  of 
the  jar.  Fill  the  jar  with  boiling  syrup  made  by  boiling  equal 
parts  of  sugar  and  water  together  for  ten  minutes.  Adjust  rub- 
bers and  tops,  and  fasten  both  clamps.  Put  into  the  fireless  cooker 
kettle,  which  has  been  warmed,  and  fill  the  kettle  with  boiling 
water.  Cover  and  transfer  to  the  fireless  cooker.  Fasten  the 
cooker  and  leave  the  fruit  all  night  or  until  cool. 


THE   DIETETIC   VALUE  OF  FRUIT  1415 

TIIK  <>U>-KAS1IH>.\KI>  () I'K. \-KETTLE  METHOD 

The  jars  and  tops  are  sterilized  ns  in  the  two  last-named  proc- 
esses. The  fruit  is  cooked  till  tender  in  an  open  kettle  ami  packed 
hot  into  the  sterilized  jars,  and  boiling  syrup  is  added  until  the 
jar  overflows.  The  rubbers  are  dipped  in  boiling  water  and  ad- 
justed, the  tops  put  on,  and  the  jars  at  once  fastened  tight. 

Advantages.  It  is  possible  to  watch  every  step  of  the  process 
and  to  remove  any  pieces  of  fruit  that  may  have  cooked  tender 
sooner  than  others. 

Disadvantages.  Separate  sterilization  of  jars  and  fruit  is 
necessary.  It  takes  long  hours  of  work  over  a  hot  stove.  The 
danger  of  infection  by  microorganisms  during  the  process  of  filling 
the  jars  makes  the  result  of  our  work  uncertain. 

Chipped  Pears  (cooked  in  open  kettle) 

Wipe  and  stem  hard  pears.  Slice  in  very  small  chips.  For 
4  pounds  of  pears,  allow  the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  2  lemons, 
3  pounds  of  sugar,  and  !/8  pound  of  scraped  ginger  root  or  % 
pound  of  Canton  ginger.  Allow  %  cup  of  water  for  every  pound 
of  sugar.  Cook  all  together  very  slowly  for  about  three  hours. 
It  should  be  a  reddish  brown  in  color  when  done. 

The  above  is  so  rich  that  it  may  be  kept  in  a~~crock.  Whenever 
a  very  heavy  syrup  is  used,  there  is  less  danger  from  spoiling,  even 
by  the  open-kettle  method.  Therefore,  this  method  still  has  its 
place  in  the  making  of  jellies,  jams,  marmalades,  etc.,  in  which 
sugar  acts  as  a  preservative. 

JELLIES 

Jellies  are  a  product  of  definite  proportions  of  fruit-acid,  sugar, 
and  the  jelly-making  element  in  fruit  known  as  pectin.  Failure 
is  more  often  due  to  the  use  of  too  much  sugar  than  to  any  other 
cause.  If  the  fruit  is  watery,  the  pound-for-pound  proportion 
will  not  give  good  results.  Less  sugar  must  be  used.  The  fruits 
best  adapted  for  jelly-making  are  currants,  slightly  underripe 
grapes,  arid  sour  apples.  The  acid  element  is  a  necessary  part  of 
the  combination.  Wild  fruit  such  as  grapes,  raspberries,  black- 
berries, and  even  blueberries,  are  all  well  adapted  to  jelly-making, 


THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY  IN   XEW   YORK  STATK 

and  thus  may  be  used  to  supply  deficiencies  in  the  home  garden. 
Apples  are  especially  rich  in  pectin,  and  are  often  added  to  other 
fruits  for  this  reason. 

To  prepare  small  fruits  for  jelly-making,  after  they  have  been 
looked  over  and  washed,  put  them  in  a  saucepan  with  a  weight  on 
them.  Then  add  water  until  you  can  see  it.  Cover  the  saucepan 
and  simmer  until  the  juice  is  cooked,  out.  Strain  the  fruit  through 
a  sieve  into  a  jelly-bag  and  suspend  the  bag  to  drip  until  all  the 
juice  has  run  through. 

(For  preparing  a  second  and  third  extraction  of  juice,  see 
Cornell  Reading  Course  Lesson  for  Farm  Home,  Vol.  I,  No.  15, 
on  "  Principles  of  Jelly-making,  "j 

For  each  cup  of  juice  allow  from  «%  to  1  cup  of  sugar.  Boil 
the  strained  fruit  juice  twenty  minutes,  then  add  the  sugar  (which 
has  been  previously  heated),  stir  until  dissolved,  and  boil  exactly 
three  minutes.  There  are  many  tests  for  determining  the  exact 
moment  when  the  boiling  mass  will  "  jell  "  satisfactorily,  but  the 
writer  has  found  the  above  a  safe  rule  to  follow. 

Fruit  Juices 

Extracted  fruit  juice  may  be  canned  by  the  cold-pack  method 
and  made  into  jelly  as  needed,  or  fruit  juices  may  be  prepared 
with  a  slight  amount  of  sugar  to  be  used  as  beverages.  Fruit 
juices  may  be  made  from  unconsidered  fragments  of  fruit,  as  in 
converting  a  few  left-over  raspberries  into  that  delectable  summer 
drink,  raspberry  vinegar.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  have  large 
quantities  to  work  with,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  go  through  any  com- 
plicated process  of  manufacture  in  order  to  get  good  results. 
Cover  raspberries  with  vinegar  and  let  them  stand  over  night.  In 
the  morning  strain  as  for  jelly.  Allow  a  cup  of  sugar  for  every 
cup  of  juice,  and  boil  sugar  and  juice  together  for  five  minutes. 
Bottle,  or  put  into  fruit-jars. 

When  served  as  a  beverage,  use  one  part  of  the  juice  to  three 
or  four  parts  of  water. 


THE  DIETETIC   VALUE  OF  FRUIT 


H17 


References : 


runners'  liulletinn,  i  .  N.  D<i><irtin<nt  <>j  Agriculture 

Use  of  Fruit  as  a  Food,  No.  293 

Cart1  of  Food  in  the  Home,  No.  37;"> 

Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  .Jellies,  No.  203 

Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm,  No.  42ti 
Cornell  Reading  Courses 

Principles  of  Jelly -making 

The  Preservation  of  Food  in  the  Home,  Parts  1,  2,  3 

(aiming  Clubs  in  New  York  State,  Parts  1,  2,  3 
Itulletiii  of  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 

Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables 
New  York  titate  Department  of  Agriculture 

The  New  York  State  Farm  Home  and  Suggestions  for  the  House- 
wife 


PKOMISS  OF  PLENTY 


INDEX 


Abundance  plum,    1161. 
Agawam  blackberry,  1376. 
American   plum   borer,    1189. 
Anderson,  E.  H.,  Peaches  in  Western 

Xew   York,   1069-1076. 
Anjou  pear,  997,  998,  1003. 
Anthony,    R.    D.,    Hybrid    Grapes    at 

Geneva,   1331-1338. 
Anthracnose      on     black      raspberry, 

1363. 
Aphis,  peach,  black,  1094,  1095. 

plum,    1187,   1188. 
Aphis  galls  of  peach,  1106,   1107. 
Apple,  cake,   1406. 

sauce,  1405. 
Apples, 

baked,    1405. 

cooked  filling  for  pies,  1405. 
in  dietary,  1404-1407. 
raw  filling  for  pies,  1906. 
windfall,  preserving,  for  pie  fill- 
ing, 1413. 
whole,  1412. 
Arch  Duke  plum,  1163. 
Arsenate    of    lead    as    spray,     1025, 
1032,  1033,  1034,  1096,  1144,  1140, 
1148,  1149,  1184,  1211,  1297,   1305, 
1312,  1358,  1385. 

B 
Bailey,  L.   H.,  A  Look  Backward  on 

the  Grape,   1219-1227. 
Bark   beetles,    1099-1102,    1188. 
Barley  as  cover  crop,   1009,  1141. 
Barrus,    M.    F.,    Diseases    of    Pears, 

1039-1051. 

Bartlett  pear,  993,   1001. 
Bavay  plum,   1163. 
Belle  of  Georgia  peach,  1063. 
Beurre,  Bosc  pear,  095,  996,  1004. 
Clairgeau  pear,  996,  997,  1005. 
d'Anjou  pear,  997,  998,  1003. 
Bing  cherry,  1125,  1127. 


Black,  knot  of  plum,  1190-1192. 
peach  aphis,  1094,  1095. 
raspberries,  1360-1366. 
culture,   1362,   1363. 
diseases,  1358,  13(5:}. 
anthracnose,   1363. 
cane   blight,    1358. 
orange  rust,  1363. 
yellows,  1358. 
insects,   1363. 
location  and  soil,   1360. 
manure  and  fertilizers,  1360. 
marketing,   1365. 
propagation,  1362. 
pruning,  1362. 
varieties,   1365,    1366. 
rot  disease  of  grapes,  1314-1316. 
Tartarian  cherry,  1127. 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry,  The,  1369- 

1377. 
Blackberries   and    Dewberries,    O.    M. 

Taylor,  1371-1377. 
culture,  1373,  1374. 
diseases,   1374. 
insects,   1374. 
location  and   soil,   1371. 
manure     and     fertilizers,     1371, 

1373. 

marketing,  1376. 
propagation,  1373. 
pruning,  1374. 
varieties,  1376,  1377. 
Blake,    M.    A.,    Pruning    the    Peach, 

1084-1092. 

Blight,  lire,  1039-1048. 
cause  of,  1041. 
conditions    favorable    to    in- 
fection, 1043,   1044. 
control    methods,   1044-1048. 
life  history  of,  1041-1043. 
pruning     for,      1009,      1017, 

1018. 

symptoms  of,   1039-1041. 
leaf,  of  pear,   1050,   1051. 


[1419] 


1420 


INDEX 


Blister  mite,  1037,  1038. 
Bordeaux    mixture    as    spray,    1011, 
1025,   1049,  1051,  1110,   1184,  1198, 
1199,  1211,  1297,  1308,  1312,  1316, 
1320,   1385. 
Borer,  currant,  1386. 
Borers,  peach,   1097-1105. 

lesser  peach,  1098. 
,  peach-tree,  1102-1105. 
peach-twig,  1098. 
removal  of,  1080,  1081. 
shot-hole,    or    bark    beetles, 

1099-1102. 
pear,  1019-1022. 

flat-headed,  1021,  1022. 
round-headed,  1021,  1022. 
sinuate,  1019,  1020. 
Bosc  pear,  995,  996,  1004. 
Boskoop  Giant  currant,   1388. 
Bradshaw  plum,  1163. 
Bray's  Rareripe  peach,  1065. 
Brighton  grape,  1228. 
Briton  blackberry,   1376. 
Brown,  H.  L.,  Quinces,   1209-1213. 
Brown    rot    disease,    of    peach,    110?). 

1110. 
of  plum,  1192-1195. 

control  methods,  1195. 
Buckwheat  as  cover  crop,  1140. 
Bud   moth,   1032. 
Burbank  plum,  1163,  1165. 


Cane  blight,  of  currant,  1386. 

of   raspberry,    1358. 
Canning    fruit,    as    means    of    saving 

surplus,   1408,   1409. 
cold-pack  method,  1409-1413. 

apples    preserved    by,    1412. 

1413. 

time-table  for,  1410,  1411. 
fireless  cooker  method,   1414. 

peaches    preserved   by,    1414. 
open-kettle   method,    1415. 

chipped     pears     canned     by, 

1415. 
oven  method,  1413,  1414. 

pears  canned  by,  1413,  1414. 
Cape    grape,    introduction    of,    1222, 
1224,  1231,  1233. 


Carman  peach,  1062. 

Catawba    grape,     characteristics     of, 

1230. 

introduction  of,  1222,  1331. 
sections  adapted  to,  1239-1241. 
Central  Lakes  grape-growing  section, 

1238,  1244,  1245,  1249. 
Champagnp    industry    in    Xew    York, 

1262-1265. 
Champion,  currant,   1388. 

peach,  1062,  1063. 

Chautauqua  Belt,  as  a  grape-grow- 
ing section,  1238,  1244,  1249, 
1251,  1268. 

Production     arid     Marketing     of 
Grapes    in,    S.    J.    Lowell, 
1322-1330. 
buyers  unwilling  to  pay  for 

quality,  1326,  1327. 
climatic  requirements,   1329. 
cooperative      selling,      1325, 

1326. 

cultural  methods,  1328,  1329. 
foundation  of  industry,  1322, 

1323. 

harvesting,    1327. 
magnitude  of  industry,  1329, 

1330. 

package,  evolution  of,   1323, 
1324. 

need  of  standard,   1324. 
primitive    methods    of    ship- 
ping,  1324,  1325. 
pruning,   1329. 
varieties,  popular,  1327. 
Chautauqua,  gooseberry,   1396. 

system    of    pruning    grapevines, 

1288. 
Cherry,  The,   1121-1157. 

Cultural    Methods    in    Growing. 

W.  L.  McKay,   1135-1142. 

adaptation    of    varieties    to 

market,   1135. 
cover  crops,  1140,  1141. 
cultivation,  1141,  1142. 
drainage,    1139. 
essentials        for        vigorous 

growth,    1135-1139. 
pruning,   1142. 
spraying,   1139,   1140. 


INDEX 


1421 


Cherry  —  Continued. 

Diseases    of    the,    L.    R.    liesler, 

1150,  1151. 

brown   rot,    1192-1195. 
leaf  spot,  1195-1198. 
powdery  mildew,  1150. 
fruit-flies,  1145,  1146. 
Insects,  C.  R.  Crosby,  1143-1149. 
fruit-flies,  1145,  1146. 
pear  slug,  1147,  1148. 
plant  louse,  1146,  1147. 
plum  curculio,    1143,    1144. 
red   cherry  leaf-beetle,   1148, 

1149. 

San  Jose"   scale,   1148. 
leaf  beetle,  red,  1148,  1149. 
Marketing,    C.    K.    Scoon,    1152- 

1155. 

harvesting,  1154,  1155. 
increase   of   planting,    1152- 

1154. 

methods  qf  packing,  1154. 
study    demand     of    market. 

1152. 

plant  louse,   1146,  1147. 
statistics,    1156,    1157. 
Varieties  of,  U.  P.  Hedrick,  1123- 

1134. 

Eing,  '1125,  1127. 
Black  Tartarian,  1127. 
Coe,  1127. 
Dukes,  1133,  1134. 
May,   1133,   1134. 
Late,   1133. 

Reine    Hortense,    1134. 
Early  Purple,  1127. 
Early  Richmond,  1123. 
Elton,   1129. 
English  Morello,  1125. 
Ida,  1129. 
Lambert,    1129. 
Montmorency,   1123,   1125. 
Napoleon,  1131. 
Schmidt,   1131. 
Windsor,    1131. 
Wood,  1133. 
Yellow  Spanish,  1133. 
Cherry  currant,  1388. 
Chipped   pears,    receipe    for    canning, 
1415. 


Clairgean  pear,  996,  997,  1005. 
Clapp's    Favorite    pear,    993,    1000, 

1001. 

Clinton  grape,  1230. 
Clover  as  cover  crop,  1009,  1141. 
Codling  moth,  1024,  1025. 
Coe  cherry,   1127. 
Cold-pack  method  of  canning  fruits, 

1409-1413. 
Common  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Plum, 

F.  H.  Lathrop,  1183-1189. 
Concord     grape,     characteristics     of, 

1230. 

origin  of,  1227. 

sections  adapted  to,  1238,  1239. 
Control     of     Insects     Injurious     to 
Grapes,  F.  Z.  Hartzell,   1296-1313. 
Cornell,  J.  R.,  Varieties  of  Pears  for 

Eastern  New  York,  991-999. 
Cover  crops,  in  cherry  orchard,  1140, 

1141. 

in  grape  vineyard,  1293. 
in  peach  orchard,  1079,  1080. 
in  pear  orchard,  1009,  1011. 
in  plum  orchard,   1178. 
Crosby,  C.  R.,  Cherry  Insects,  1143- 

1149. 
Crown  gall,  of  peach,  1106,  1107. 

of  raspberry,   1359. 
Cultural  Methods,  for  Cherry,  W.  L. 

McKay,   1135-1142. 
for  Grape,  F.  E.  Gladwin,  1272- 

1295. 
for  Peaches,  A.  T.  Henry,  1077- 

1083. 

for  Pears,  Ira  Pease,  1007-1013. 
Cumberland   black    raspberry,    1366. 
Curculio,   work   of,   on    cherry,    1143, 

1144. 

on  peach,  1095,  1096. 
on  pear,  1031,  1032. 
on  plum,    1183,   1184. 
Currant,  The,  1379-1388. 
Currant,  borer.   1386. 
plant  louse,  1386. 
worm,  1385. 

Currants,  O.  M.  Taylor,  1381-1388. 
culture,   1384,   1385. 
diseases,   1386. 

cane  blight,  1386. 


1422 


INDEX 


Currants  —  Con  tin  tied. 

leaf-spot,   1386. 
insects,   1385,   1386. 

borer,   1386. 

plant   louse,    1386. 

San  Jose  scale,  1386. 

worm,  1385. 
location  and  soil,  1381. 
manure     and     fertilizers,      1381, 

1382. 

marketing,    1386,    1387. 
propagation,    1382. 
pruning,  1385. 
spraying,  1385. 
varieties,  1387,  1388. 
Cuthbert   red  raspberry,   1360. 

D 

Dana's  Hovey  pear,  999. 
Dead-arm  disease  of  grape,  1320. 
Delaware    grape,    characteristics    of, 

1230,  1231. 

sections  adapted  to,   1242. 
Dewberries.    See  Blackberries. 
Diamond,  black  raspberry,  1366. 
grape,   1231. 
plum,  1166. 
Diana  grape,  1231. 

Dietetic    Value   of   Fruit,  I.   8.   Har- 
rington,  1401-1417. 
Diseases,  blackberry,  1374. 

Cherry,  L.  R.  Hesler,  1150,  1151. 

currant,   1386. 

gooseberry,  1395. 

Grape,    D.    Reddick,    1314-1321. 

Peach,    L.    F.    Strickland,    1094- 

1115. 

Pear,   M.    F.   Barrus,   1039-1051. 
Plum,  L.  R.  Hesler,  1190-1199. 
quince,  1211. 
raspberry,  black,  1363. 

red,  1358,  1359. 
Downing  gooseberry,   1396. 
Downy  mildew  of  grapes,   1316-1318. 
Doyenne  d'Ete  pear,  999. 
Drainage,  importance  of  proper,  1139, 

1173,  1275.J 
Drooping  type  of  pruning  grapevines, 

1282. 
Duane  plum,  1165. 


Duchess  d'Angouleme  pear,  1005. 
Dufours,    efforts    of,    in    propagating 

grape,  1224-1226. 
Dutchess  grape,   1231,   1232. 

E 

Early,  Belle  peach,  1062. 
Purple  cherry,   1127. 
Richmond    cherry,    1123. 
Eastern  New  York,  Peaches     for,    P. 

L.   Huested,    1061-1068. 
Pears    for,    Varieties    of,    J.    R. 

Cornell,  991-999. 
Eclipse  grape,   1232. 
Elberta  peach,   1061,   1062. 
Eldorado  blackberry,  1377. 
Elton   cherry,    1129. 
English  Morello  cherry,  1125. 
Erie  blackberry.  1377. 
Eureka  black  raspberry.   1366. 
European,      fruit      Lecanium,      1186, 

1187. 
fruit-tree    scale,    1186. 

F 

False     tarnished     plant     bug,     1025, 

1026,  1096. 
Fan    system    of    pruning    grapevines. 

1288,  1289. 
Farrand,  A.,  Packing  and  Marketing 

Pears,  1052-1055.     ' 
Pruning  Pear  'Frees,  1015-1018. 
Fay  currant,  1388. 

Fertilizers,  for  blackberries  and  dew- 
berries, 1371,  1373. 
for  currants,   1381,   1382. 
for  gooseberries,  1393. 
for  grapes,   1293. 
for  peaches,   1080. 
for  plums,  1178,  1180. 
for  quinces,   1209. 
for  raspberries,  black.   13(50. 

red,   1355. 

Filler  currant,  1388. 
Fire  blight,  1039-1048. 
Fireless  cooker  method  of  preserving 

fruit,  1414. 

Flat-headed  borer,  1021,  1022. 
Flea-bettle,  grapevine,   1301-1303. 
Flemish  Beauty  pear,  ^006. 


I  M)i-:x 


1423 


l-'rances    peach.    1063. 

French    Damson  plum,  11(55. 

Frey,  (J.,  Grape  .Juice  Industry,  1268- 

1271. 
Frost    injury    of    peach    trees.     1113- 

1115. 
control     measures,     11<>.~>.     1111, 

1115. 
similarity     of,    to     stub     canker, 

1115. 
Fruit,  acid,  1402. 

and    cornstarch    pudding,    recipe 

tor.    1407. 
and     nut     pudding,     recipe     for, 

1406,   1407. 
canning,  1408-1415. 
cleanliness   in    serving   raw,    need 

of,  1403,  1404. 
cooking,  1404-1416. 
Dietetic  Value  of.  I.  S.  Harring- 
ton, 1401-1417. 
dishes  made  from,  1405-1408. 
intelligent  use   of,  1402. 
jellies,  1415. 
juices,  1416. 
.mastication  of,  1403. 
mullins.  recipe  for,  1408. 
shortcake,  recipe  for,  1407,  1408. 
unripe   and  overripe,  dangers   of 
.    eating,  1403. 

Fruit-Hies,   cherry,    1145,    1146. 
Fruit  Lecanium,  1186,  1187. 
I  ru it-tree,  bark  beetle,  1188. 
leaf  roller,  1032,  1033. 
scale,  European,  1186. 

G 
Geneva,    Hybrid    Grapes    at,    R.    D. 

Anthony,   1331-1338.    . 
German  Prune,  1165,  1167. 
Gladwin,  F.  E.,  Cultural  Methods  for 
Grape    in    New    York,     1272- 
1295. 
Grape-growing    Sections   of   New 

York,  1238-1245. 
Gooseberry,  The,  1389-1397. 
Gooseberries,    0.    M.     Taylor,    1391- 

1396. 

culture,   1393. 
insects,  1395. 


<  rooseberries  —  Continued. 
location  and   soil,   1391. 
nianiii-e  and  fert  ili/.ers,  1393. 
marketing,  13<)5,  139(5. 
mildew,  1395. 
propagation,   l.')93. 
pruning,   1393,   1395. 
spraying,   1395. 
varieties,  1396,  1397. 
Gouger  plum,  1184,  1185. 
Grand    Duke  plum,   1167. 
Grape,  The,   1217-1340. 

A    Look    Backward    on,    L.     11. 

Bailey,    1219-1227. 
community    effort    in    early 

days,  1224. 

early  literature,  1219. 
evolution     of     table     grape, 

1222-1224. 

fruit  of  the  vine,  1219,  1220. 
influence   on   man's   develop- 
ment, 1220,  1221. 
passing  of  wine  grape,  1221, 

1222. 
berry  moth,   1309-1313. 

control       measures,        1312, 

1313. 

damage  done  by,  1309,  1310. 
life  history  of,  1311,  1312. 
cheese     in     wine-making,     1259, 

1260. 
Cultural  Methods  for,  F.  E.  Glad- 

win,  1272-1295. 
cover  crops,  1293. 
essential      soil      conditions, 
1273-1276. 
drainage,  1275. 
preparation  for  setting, 

1275,  1276. 
fertilizers  for,   1293. 
location,  1272,   1273. 
manuring,  1293,  1295. 
planting      vineyard,       1276- 

1279. 

laying   out,    1276,    1277. 
selection  of  vines,  1276. 
setting  vines,  1277. 
trellis,  1279. 
pruning,  1279-1291. 
tilth  and  tillage,  1291,  1292. 


1424 


INDEX 


(.}  rape  —  Continued. 

Diseases    of,    D.    Reddick,    1314- 

1321. 

black  rot,  1314-1310. 
dead-arm  disease,  1320. 
downy  mildew,  1316-1318. 
powdery  mildew,   1318-1320. 
Growing  Sections  of  New   York, 
F.  E.  Gladwin,  1238-1245. 
four  principal  regions,  1238. 
varieties       grown       in, 

1244,  1245. 
sections     adapted,     to     Ca- 

tawba,  1239-1241. 
to  Concord,  1238,  1239. 
to  Delaware,  1242. 
to  Moore,  1243,   1244. 
to  Niagara,   1241,   1242. 
to  Worden,  1243. 
history    of,   1219-1227. 
Hybrid,    at    Geneva,    R.    D.    An- 
thony, 1331-1338. 
experiments    of    a    quarter- 
century,  1336-1338. 
pioneer  experience,  1331. 
results     following     introduc- 
tion   of    Isabella    and    Ca- 
tawba,   1331-1336. 
Insects  Injurious  to,  F.  Z.  Hart- 

zell,  1296-1313. 
berry  moth,  1309-1313. 
flea-beetle,        grapevine, 

1301-1303. 

lea/f -hopper,     1305-1308. 
root-worm,  1298-1301. 
rose  chafer,  1304,  1305. 
general  directions  for  treat- 
ment, 1296,  1297. 
Juice    Industry,  G.    Frey,    1268- 

1271. 

growth  of,  1271. 
in  Chautauqua  Belt,  1268. 
statistics    relative   to,    1269, 

1270. 
leaf  hopper,  (1305-1308. 

characteristics       of,       1305, 

1306. 

control  measures,  1307,  1308. 
clean  culture  in  relation  to, 

1308. 
life  history,  1306,  1307. 


Grape  —  Continued. 

Marketing,    Production    and,    in 
Chautauqua    Belt,     S.     J. 
Lowell,  1322-1330. 
priming,  1279-1291. 

proper  time  for,  1280. 
types  of,   1280-1291. 
Chautauqua,    1288. 
drooping,  1282. 
fan,  1288,  1289. 
high  renewal,   128o, 

1286. 
horizontal,        1289- 

1291. 
horizontal  arm 

spur,  1288. 
one-wire       Knift'en, 

1284,  1285. 
single-stem,        four- 
cane      K  n  i  ff  e  n, 
1282,  1283. 
two-stem,    four-cane 

Kniffen,    1283. 
umbrella       Kniffen. 

1284. 

upright,  1285.. 
Y-stem    Kniffen, 

1284. 
root-worm,  1298-1301. 

characteristics  of,  1298,  1299. 
control  measures,  1299. 
destruction  of   pupae,   1299- 

1301. 

statistics,   1339,  1340. 
Varieties  of,  U.  P.  Hedrick,  1228- 

1237. 

Brighton,  1228. 
Catawba,  1230. 
Clinton,    1230. 
Concord,   1230. 
Delaware,    1230,    1231. 
Diamond,  1231. 
Diana,  1231. 
Dutchess,  1231,  1232 
Eclipse,  1232. 
lona,  1232. 
Jefferson,   1232,   1233. 
Lindley,  1233. 
Moore  Early,   1233. 
Niagara,  1235. 
Vergennes,  1235. 


INDEX 


1425 


(•rape  —  Continued. 

Varieties  —  Continued. 
YVinchell,   1235,  1237. 
NVorden,  1237. 
wine-making,  124(5-1267. 
varieties  used,  1253. 
Grapevine  flea-beetle,   1301-1303. 

control  measures,  1303. 
Green  fruit  worms,  1033,  1034. 
(iivensboro  peach,   1062. 
'Jiv.utf  black  raspberry,  1366. 
(Jueii  plum,  1167. 

<iulley,  A.  G.,   Packing  and  Market- 
ing* the  Peach,  1116,  1117. 

H 

Hale,  J.  H.,  peach,  1062. 
Harrington,  I.   S.,  Dietetic   Value  of 

Fruit,  1401-1417. 
Hartzell,    F.    Z.,    Control    of    Insects 

Injurious  to  Grape,  1296-1313. 
lledrick,  U.  P.,  Varieties,  of  Cherries, 

1123-1134. 

of  Grapes,  1228-1237. 
of  Plums,  1161-1171. 
I  lei  ley  peach,  1062. 
Henry,   A.   T.,   Cultural   Methods   for 

tlu>  Peach,  1077-1083. 
Herbert  red  raspberry,  1360. 
Hesler,  L.  R.,  Diseases,  of  the  Cherry, 

1050,  1051. 

of  the  Plum,  1190-1199. 
High  renewal  type  of  pruning  grape- 
vines, 1285,  1286. 
Hop  plant  louse,  1187. 
Horizontal,  arm  spur  system  of  prun- 
ing grapevines,    1288. 
Mstem     of    pruning    grapevines, 

1289-1291. 

Howe,   G.   H.,    Cultural   Method   and 
Pruning  for  Plums  and  Prunes, 
1172-1182. 
Marketing    Plums    and    Prunes, 

1200-1203. 
Hudson  Valley  grape-growing  section, 

1238,  1245,  1249. 
Huested,   P.   L.,   Peaches   in    Eastern 

New  York,  1061-1068. 
Hybrid    Grapes    at    Geneva,    R.    D. 
Anthony,  1331-1338. 


I 

Ida  cherry,  1129. 
Industry  gooseberry,  1396. 
Insects,  blackberry,  1374. 

Cherry,  C.  R.  Crosby,  1143-1149. 

currant,  1385,  1386. 

gooseberry,  1395. 

Grape,  F.  Z.  Hartzell,  1296-1313. 

Pear,  P.  J.  Parrott,  1019-1038. 

Plum,  F.  H.  Lathrop,  H83-1189. 

quince,  1211. 

raspberry,  black,  1363. 

red,  1356,  1357. 

Intercopping     peach     orchard,     1079, 
1080. 

pear  orchard,  1009. 
lona  grape,   1232. 
Iron  Mountain  peach,  1065. 
Isabella  grape,  introduction  of,  1222, 

1224,  1331,  1333. 
Italian  prune,  1167,  1169. 


Jefferson  grape,  1232,  1233. 

Jellies,     fruit,     recipe     for     making, 

1415,   14-16. 

Josselyn  gooseberry,  1396. 
Juices,    fruit,    recipe    for    preserving, 

1416. 
June  red  raspberry,  1316. 


Kansas  black  raspberry,  1366. 
Kerosene    emulsion    as    spray,    1024, 

1036,  1187,  1188,  1386. 
Kieffer  pear,  991,  1003,  1004. 
Kittatinny  blackberry,  1377. 
Kniffen    systems    of    pruning    grape- 
vines, 1282-1285. 

one-wire,  1284,  1285. 

single-stem,  four-cane,  1282,  1283. 

two-stem,  four-cane,   1283. 

umbrella,  1284. 

Y-stem,   1284. 


Lake  Ontario  grape-growing  section, 

1238,  1245,  1249,  1251. 
Lambert  cherry,  1129. 


1426 


INDEX 


Late  Duke  cherry,  1133,  1134. 

Lathrop,  F.  H.,  Common  Insect 
Enemies  of  the  Plum,  1183-1189. 

Lawrence  pear,  990,   1006. 

Leaf,  curl  disease  of  peach,  1110. 
rollers,    1032,    1033. 
spot,  of  currant.  1386. 
of  pear,   1049,    1050. 
of  plum,  1195-1198. 

Leaf-beetle,  red  cherry,  1148.  1149. 

Leaf-hopper,  grape,  1305-1308. 

Lecanium,  European  fruit,    1186. 
quince,  1211. 

Lesser  peach  borer,  1098,  1189. 

Lime-sulphur  as  spray,  1013.  1023. 
1024,  1036.  1038,  1049.  1051,  1067, 
1096,  1098,  1099,  1105.  1108.  1110, 
1148,  1151,  1185,  1186.  1187.  1195, 
1198,  1199,  1386,  1395. 

Lindley  grape,   1233. 

Little  peach  disease,  1112,  1113. 

Lombard  plum,  1169. 

Look  Backward  on  the  Grape.  A.,  L. 
H.  Bailey,  1219-1227. 

Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey  pear,  1005. 

Lowell,  8.  J.,  Production  and  Market- 
ing of  Grapes  in  Chautauqua  Belt. 
1322-1330. 

Lucretia  dewberry,  1377. 

M 

McDonald  dewberry,  1377. 

McKay,   W.  L.,  Cultural  Methods  in 

Growing  the  Cherry,  1135-1142. 
Maggot,  cherry  fruit-fly,   1145,  1146. 
Manning's  Elizabeth  pear,  999. 
Marketing,  blackberries,   1376. 

Cherries,  C.  K.  Scoon,  1152-1153. 
currants,  1386,   1387. 
gooseberries,  1395,   1396. 
Grapes  in  Chautauqua  Belt,  S.  J. 

Lowell,    1322-1330. 
peaches,    1068,    1074,    1082    1083, 

1117 

Pears,  A.  Farrand,  1052-1055. 
Plums  and  Prunes,  G.  H.  Howe, 

1200-1203. 

raspberries,   black,   1365. 
red,   1359. 


Marlboro  red  raspberry,  1360. 
Marldon  red  raspberry.  1360. 
May  Duke  cherry,  1133,  1134. 
Mayes  dewberry,   1377. 
Mayflower  peach,  1062. 
Mealy  plum  louse,  1187,  1188. 
Mersereau  blackberry,  1377. 
Midge,  pear.  1026. 
Mildew,  of  gooseberry.   1395. 
of  grapes,  1316-1320. 
downy,  1316-1318. 
powdery,   1318-1320. 
Miscible    oils    as    spray,    1023,    1029. 

1033,   1186,   1187. 
Monarch  plum,  1169. 
Montmorency  cherry,  1123,  1125. 
Moore     Karly    grape,    characteristics 

of,  1233. 
sections   adapted  to,    1243,   1244. 


Napoleon  cherry,   1131. 

Nelis  pear,  997,  1005. 

New  Rochelle  blackberry,  1377. 

New  York,  Eastern,  Peaches  in,  P.  L. 

Huested,  1061-1068. 
Pears    for,    Varieties    of.    J. 

R.  Cornell,  991-999. 
Grape-Growing  Sections  of,  F.  K. 

Gladwin,    1238-1245. 
Western,  Peaches  in,  E.  H.  Ander- 
son, 1069-1076. 
Pears    for,    Varieties    of,    I. 

Pease,    1000-1006. 
Wine     Industry,     L.     J.     Vance, 

1246-1267. 
Niagara,     grape,     characteristics     of, 

1235. 

sections,  adapted  to,   1242. 
grape-growing       district,       1238, 

1245,   1249,   1251. 

Nicotine   in  spray,   1026,   1029.    1036. 
1037,  1147,  1188,  1308,  1358. 

O 

Oats  as  cover  crop,  1141. 
Oblique-banded  leaf-roller.  1032,  1033. 
One-wire   Knift'en   system   of   pruning 
grapevines,   1284,    1285. 


INDEX 


1427 


Open-kettle  method  of  canning  fruit, 

1415. 

Orange  rust  of  black  raspberry,  1363. 
Oven  method  of  canning  fruit,  1413, 

1414. 
Overripe    fruit,    dangers    of    eating, 

1403. 
Oyster-shell  scale,  1023,  1024. 


Packing    and    Marketing    Pears,    A. 

Farrand,  1052-1055. 
Palmer  black  raspberry,  1366. 
Palmer,      W.,      Strawberries,      1343- 

1347. 

Parrott,  P.  J.,  Insects  Attacking  the 
Pear,    and    Their    Control,     1019- 
1038. 
Peach,  The,  1059-1119. 

aphis,  black,  1094,  1095. 
borer,  lesser,  1098. 
canning  by  tireless  cooker,  1414. 
Cultural   Method   for,    and   Mar- 
keting, A.  T.  Henry,  1077- 
1083. 

care  when  fruiting,  1081. 
cultivation    and    intercropp- 
ing,  1079,.  1080. 
distance  between  trees,  107$. 
fertilizers,  1080. 
harvesting,  1081. 
importance    of    good    stock, 

1078. 
location    of    orchard,    1077, 

1078. 
low-headed    trees    desirable, 

1079. 
protection      from      animals, 

1080. 
removal     of     borers,     1080, 

1081. 
setting     trees,     method     of, 

1079. 

varieties  to  plant,  1078. 
Diseases,     Insects     and,     L.     F. 

Strickland,    1094-1115. 
brown  rot,  1109.   1110. 
crown  gall,  1106,  1107. 
frost  injury,  1113-1115. 


Peach  —  Continued. 

Diseases  —  Continued. 
leaf  curl,  1110. 
little  peach,  1112,  1113. 
peach    spot,    or    scab,    1107, 

1108. 

powdery  mildew,  1107. 
shot-hole    of    foliage,     1108, 

1109. 

yellows,  1111. 
in    Eastern    New    York,    P.    L. 

Huested,    1061-1068. 
location     and     climatic     re- 
quirements,  1065,   1066. 
market  conditions,  1068. 
susceptibility        to    disease, 

1066,  1067. 
varieties  and  characteristics, 

1062-1065. 
in    Western    New    York,    E.    H. 

Anderson,    1069-1076. 
cultural  methods,  1070. 
marketing,   1074. 
pruning,  1071,  1073. 
soils  and  fertilization,  1069, 

1070. 
uncertainty    of    crop,    1075, 

1076. 

varieties  grown,  1073,  1074. 
Insects,     Diseases     and,     L.     F. 

Strickland,   1094-1115. 
black  aphis,  1094,  1095. 
borers,   1097-1105. 
peach-twig,   1098. 
lesser  peach,  1098. 
shot-hole,  1099-1102. 
peach-tree,  1102-1105. 
curculio,  1095,  1096. 
plant  bugs,  1096,  1097. 
San  Jose  scale,  1097. 
leaf  curl,  1110. 
Marketing,   Packing   and,   A.   G. 

Gulley,  1116,  1117. 
Pruning,  M.  A.  Blake,  1084-1092. 
at  close  of  first  season,  1086- 

1090. 

during     second     and     third 
years,  1090-1092. 


1428 


INDEX 


Peach  —  Continued. 

Pruning  —  Continued. 

following      winter       injury, 

1092. 
importance       of       thorough, 

1093. 
nursery    trees    at    time    of 

planting,    1085,    1086. 
old  trees,  1093. 
reasons  for,  1084,  108&. 
scab  disease,  1107,  1108. 
spot  disease,  1107,  1108. 
statistics,  1118,  1119. 
tree  borers,  1102-1105,  1189. 

control  measures,  1104,  1105. 
twig  borer,  1098. 
varieties,  1061-1065,  1074,  1075, 

1112. 

yellows,   1111. 
Pear,  The,  989-1057. 
blight,  1011. 

pruning  for,  1017,  1018. 
Cutural  Methods  for,  Ira  Pease, 

1007-1013. 

care  in  setting,  1007. 
cover  crops  for,  1009,  1011. 
distance  of  planting,  1007. 
in  relation  to  blight,  1011. 
insect  enemies,  1011,  1012. 
intercropping,  1009. 
pruning,    1009. 
Diseases  of,  M.  F.  Barrus,  1039- 

1051. 

lire  blight,  1039-1048. 
leaf  blight,  1050,  1051. 
leaf  spot,  1049,  1050. 
scab,  1048,  1049. 
Insects  Attacking  the,  and  Their 
Control,     P.    J.    Parrott, 
1019-1038. 

blister  mite,   1037,   1038. 
borers,    1019-1022. 

flat-headed,  1021,  1022. 
r  o  u  n  d-h  e  a  d  e  d,  1021, 

1022. 

sinuate,  1019,  1020. 
bud  moth,  1032. 
codling  moth,  1024,  1025. 
curculio,  1031,  1032. 


Pear  —  Continued. 

Insects  —  Continued. 

false    tarnished    plant    bug, 

1025,  1026. 
green     fruit     worms,     1033, 

1034. 

leaf  rollers,   1032,  1033. 
midge,   1026. 

oyster-shell  scale,  1023,  1024. 
psylla,     1011,     1013,     1034- 

1037. 
San  Jose   scale,    1011,   1022, 

1023. 

scurfy  scale,  1024. 
slug,  1037. 
thrips,   1028-1031. 
midge,  1026. 

Marketing,  Packing  and,  A.  Far- 
rand,  1052-1055. 
advisability  of  law   regulat- 
ing packing,   1052. 
establishing  a  market,  1054, 

1055. 

importance  of   proper   pack- 
ing,   1052,    1054. 
selling    through    commission 

houses,  1055. 

Pruning,  A.  Farrand,  1015-1018. 
for  blight,  1009,  1017,  1018. 
importance  of  proper,   1015. 
methods  of,  1017. 
purpose  of,   1015,   1016. 
winter,    1017. 

psylla,  1011,  1013,  1034-1037. 
treatment  for,  1035-1037. 
scab,  1048,  1049. 
slug,   1037,   1147,    1148. 
statistics,  1056,   1057. 
thrips,   1028-1031. 

treatment  tor,  1029. 
Varieties    of,    for    Eastern    !NVrt 
York,    J.    R.    Cornell 
991-999. 
Bartlett,  993. 
Beurre  Bosc,  995,  996. 
Beurre    Clairgeau,    996, 

997. 

Beurre  d'Anjou,  997. 
Clapps  Favorite,  993. 
Cornice,    999. 


INDEX 


1429 


Pear  —  Continued. 

Varieties  —  Continued. 

Dana's  llovey,  999. 
Doyenne  d'   Et6,  1)99. 
Kieffer,  991. 
Lawrence,  999. 
Manning's        Elizabeth, 

999. 

Seckel,  993,  995. 
Tyson,  999. 
Winter  .Nelis,  997. 
Worden  Seckel,  998. 
for    Western    New    York,    I. 

Pease,    1000-1006. 
Bartlett,   1001. 
Beurre   Bosc,    1004. 
Beurre  Clairgeau,  1005. 
Beurre  d'Anjou,  1003. 
Clapp's    Favorite,    1000, 

1001. 
Duchess      D'Angouleme, 

1005. 

Flemiah  Beauty,  1006. 
KiefFer,   1003,   1004. 
Lawrence,   1006. 
Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey, 

1005. 

Seckel,    1001. 
Sheldon,  1003. 
Tyson,  1005. 
Vermont  Beauty,   1006. 
Winter  Nelis,  1005. 
Worden  Seckel,  1005. 
Pearl  gooseberry,   1396. 
Pease,    Ira,    'Cultural    Methods    flor 

Pears,  1007-1113. 
Varieties   of  Pears   for  Western 

New  York,  1000-1006. 
Perfection,  currant,  1388. 
red  raspberry,  1360. 
Plant,  bugs,  1096,  1097. 

louse,  cherry,  1146,  1147. 
currant,  1386. 
hop,  1187,  1188. 
plum,  1187,  1188. 
Plum,  The,  1159-1205. 

aphis,    rusty-brown,    1187,    1188. 
bladder,  1198,  1199. 
borer,  American,  1189. 
Cultural     Methods     for,    G.    H. 
Howe,  1172-1182. 


Plum  — JContinued. 

Cultural  —  Continued 

cover  crops,   1178. 

cultivation,  1176. 

drainage,  1173. 

exposure,  1173. 

fertilizers,    1178.    1180. 

location  of  orchard,  1172. 

planting,  1174-1176. 

pruning,   •1180-1182. 

soils      suitable     for,      1172, 

1173. 
curculio,  1031,  1032,  1095,  1096, 

1143,  1144,  1183,  1184. 
Diseases,  L.  R.  Hesler,  1190-1199. 

black  knot,  1190-1192. 

brown  rot,  1192-1195. 

leaf  spot,    1195-1198. 

plum  pockets,   1198,  1199. 
gouger,  1184,  1185. 
Insect  Enemies,  Common,  F.  H. 
Lathrop,    1183-1189. 

American  plum  borer,  1189. 

curculio,  1183,  1184. 

European,    fruit    Lecanium, 

1186,    1187. 
fruit-tree  scale,  1186. 

fruit-tree    bark-beetle,    1188. 

gouger,  1184,  1185. 

hop  plant  louse,  1187,  1188. 

lesser  peach-tree  borer,  1181). 

mealy     plum     louse,     1187, 
1188. 

plant  louse,  1187,  1188. 

Putnam's  scale,  1186. 

rusty-brown      aphis,      1187, 
1188. 

San   Jose"   scale,   1185,   1186. 
louse,  1187,  1188. 

mealy,  1187,  1188. 

plant,-  1187. 

Marketing,    G.   H.   Howe,    1200- 
1203. 

desirable  varieties,   1203. 

packing,  1201. 

picking,     proper     time     for, 
1200,   1201. 

problems  to  be  met,  1202. 

storing,  1201. 
plant  louse,  1187. 
pockets,  1198,  1199. 


1430 


INDEX 


Plum  —  Continued. 

Pruning,  Cultural  Methods  and, 

G.  H.  Howe,  1172-1182. 
statistics,  1204,  1205. 
Varieties,    U.  P.   Hedrick,   1161- 

1171. 

Abundance,  1161. 
Arch  Duke,  1163. 
Bavay,  1163. 
Bradshaw,  1163. 
Burbank,  1163. 
Diamond,  1165. 
Duane,  1165. 
French  Damson,  1165. 
German  Prune,  1165,  1167. 
Grand  Duke,  1167. 
Gueii,  1167. 

Italian  Prune,  1167,  1169. 
Lombard,    1169. 
Monarch,    1169. 
Pond,  1169. 
Quackenboss,  1171. 
Reine  Claude,  1171. 
Yellow   Egg,    1171. 
Plum  Farmer  black  raspberry,  1366. 
Pond  plum,  1169. 
Poorman  gooseberry,  1396. 
Powdery  mildew,  of  cherry,  1150. 
of  grapes,   1318-1320. 
of  peach,  if 07. 
Premo  dewberry,  1377. 
Preserving  fruits.    See  Canning. 
Prince  of  Wales  currant,  1388. 
Production  and  Marketing  of  Grapes 
in  Chautauqua  Belt,  S.  J.  Lowell, 
1322-1330. 
Prunes.     See  Plum. 
Pruning,  blackberry,  1374. 
cherry,  1142. 
currant,  1385. 
dewberry,  1374. 
gooseberry,  1393,  1395. 
grapevines,  1279-1291. 
Peach,  M.  A.   Blake,    1084-1092. 
Pear,  A.  Farrand,  1015-1018. 
plum,  1180-1182. 
quince,  1211. 
raspberry,  black,  1362. 
red,  1356. 


Purple  raspberry,  1366. 
Putnam's  scale,  1186. 

Q 

Quackenboss  plum,  1171. 
Quince,  The,  1207-1215. 
Quinces,  H.  L.  Brown,  1213-1229. 

cultivation  for,    1209. 

custard,  recipe  for,   1407. 

diseases,  1211. 

distance  in  planting,  1209. 

fertilization,  1209. 

insect  enemies,  1211. 

Lecanium,  1211. 

marketing,  1213. 

pruning,    1211. 

statistics,  1214,  1215. 

susceptibility  of,   to  leaf  blight, 
1051. 

varieties,  1209. 

R 

Raspberry,  The,   1349-1368. 
Raspberries,  O.  M.  Taylor,  1353-1368. 
black,    1360-1366. 
purple,  1366. 
red,  1353-1360. 
statistics,  1367,  1368. 
Raspberry,  cane-borer,  1358. 

sawfly,  1358. 

Red  cherry  leaf -beetle,  1148,  1149. 
Red  raspberries,  1353-1360. 
culture,   1355,   1356. 
diseases,  1358,  1359. 
cane   blight,  1358. 
crown  gall,   1359. 
root  knot,  1359. 
yellows,    1358. 
insects,   1356-1358. 
cane-borer,   1358. 
red  spider,    1358. 
sawfly,    1358. 
snowy  tree  cricket,  1356. 
location  and  soil,  1353. 
manure  and  fertilizers,  1355. 
marketing,   1359. 
propagation,  1355. 
pruning,  1356. 
varieties,  1359,  1360. 
Red   spider,  work  of,  on  raspberry, 
1358. 


INDEX 


1431 


Red  Cross  currant,  1388. 

Reddick,     D.,     Diseases     of     Grapes, 

1314-1321. 

Reine  Claude  plum,  1171. 
Reine  Hortense  cherry,  1134. 
Root  knot,  of  peach,  1106,  1107. 

of   raspberry,    1359. 
Rose  chafer,   1304,   1305. 
Round-headed  borer,  1021,  1022. 
Rusty-brown  plum  aphis,  1187,  1188. 
Rye  as  cover  crop,  1009,   1011. 

3 

Salway  peach,  1066. 
San  Jos6  scale,  on  cherry,  1148. 
on   currant,    1386. 
on  peach,  1097. 
on  pear,  1011,  1022,  1023. 
on  plum,  1185,  1186. 
Scale,  European  fruit-tree,  1186. 
oyster-shell,  1024. 
Putnam's,  1186. 
San  Jose,  1011,  1022,  1023,  1097, 

1148,  1185,  1186,  1386. 
scurfy,  1024. 
Schmidt  cherry,  1131. 
Scoon,    C.    K.,    Marketing    Cherries, 

1152-1155. 
Scurfy  scale,  1024. 
Seckel   pear,    993,    995,    1001. 

Worden,   998,    1005. 
Sheldon  pear,  996. 
Shortcake,    fruit,    recipe    for,    1407, 

1408. 
Shot-hole,  borers,  1099-1102. 

control   measures,    1101, 

1102. 
disease,  of  cherry,  1151. 

of  peach  foliage,  1108,  1109. 
of  plum,  1195-1198. 
Single-stem  Kniffen  system  of  prun- 
ing grapevines,  1282,  1283. 
Sinuate  borer,  1019,  1020. 
Small    fruits,    statistics    relative    to, 

1397,  1398. 
Smock  peach,  1065. 
Snowy  tree-cricket,  1356. 
Snyder  blackberry,  1377. 
Soap  in  spray,  1024,  1036,  1037,  1188, 
1312,  1338',  1386. 


Statistics,  cherry,  1156,  1157. 

grapes,  1339,  1340. 

peach,  1118,  1119. 

pear,  1056,   1057. 

plum,  1204,  1205. 

quince,  1214,  1215. 

raspberry,  1367,  1368. 

small  fruits,   1397,  1398. 

strawberry,  1348,  1349. 
Stevens  Rareripe  peach,  1063,  1065. 
Strawberry,  The,  1341-1349. 
Strawberries,  W.  Palmer,  1343-1347. 

advisability    of    studying    varie- 
ties, 1343. 

insects,  1346. 

mulching,   1345. 

picking     and     marketing,     1346, 
1347. 

soil  and  cultural  methods,  1345. 

statistics,  1348,  1349. 
Strawberry     shortcake,     recipe     for, 

1407,  1408. 

Strickland,    L.    K,    Insects   and   Dis- 
eases of  the  Peach,  1094-1115. 
Stub  canker  of  peach  trees,  1115. 


Taylor,  0.  M.,  Blackberries  and  Dew- 
berries,  1371-1377. 
Currants,  1381-1388. 
Gooseberries,    1391-1396. 
Raspberries,   1353-1368. 
Thrips,  pear,  1028-1031. 
Time-table      for     preserving     fruits, 

1410,    1411. 
Tip-layer  method   in   propagation   of 

black  raspberries,  1362. 
Tobacco  extract  in  spray,  1026,  1029, 

1036,  1037,  1147,  1188,  1308. 
Trellis,  for  dewberries,  1374. 
for  grapevines,  1279. 
for  raspberries,   1356,   1363. 
Turnips    as    cover    crop,    1009,    1011, 

1140,   1141. 
Two-stem  Kniffen  system  of  pruning 

grapevines,    1283. 
Tyson  pear,  999,  1005. 

U 

U.    S.    Department    of    Agriculture, 
canning  recipes  from,  1412,  1413. 


1432 


INDEX 


Umbrella  Kniffen  system  of  pruning 

grapevines,   1284. 

Unripe  fruit,  dangers  of  eating,  1403. 
Upright    system    of    pruning    grape- 
vines, 1285. 

V 
Vance,   L.   J.,   The  New  York   Wine 

Industry,  1246-1267. 
Varieties,  of  blackberries,  1376,  1377. 
of  Cherries,  U.  P.  Hedrick,  1123- 

1134. 

of  currants,  1387,  1388. 
of  dewberries,  1377. 
of  gooseberries,   1396,   1397. 
ot  Grapes,  U.  P.  Hedrick,   1228- 

1237. 

of  peaches,  1062-1065,  1078. 
of  Pears,  for  Eastern  New  York, 

J.   R.   Cornell,  991-999. 
for    Western    New    York,    I. 
Pease    1000-1006. 
of  Plums,  U.  P.  Hedrick,   1161- 

1171. 
of  raspberries,  black,   1365,  1366. 

red,  1359,  1360. 
Vergennes  grape,  1235. 
Vermont  Beauty  pear,  1006. 
Vetch  as  cover  crop,  1009,  1011,  1140, 

1141. 

Vinifera  hybrid  grapes,  1333-1338. 
Viticultural    school,    advisability    of, 
for  New  York  State,  1266,  1267. 

W 

Waddell  peach,  1062. 

Western  New  York,  Peaches  in,  E.  H. 

Anderson,  1069-1076. 
Pears  for,  Varieties  of,  I.  Pease, 

1000-1006. 
White,   grape  currant,   1388. 

grub,    work    of,    on    strawberry, 

1346. 

Imperial  currant,  1388. 
Whitesmith   gooseberry,    1396. 
Wilder  currant,   1388. 
Willett  peach,  1065. 
Wilma  peach,  1062. 
Winchell,  Grape,   1235,  1237. 
Windfall  apples,  recipe  for  canning, 
1412,  1413. 


Wine,  grape,  passing  of  the,  1221. 
Industry,    the   New   York,   L.  J. 

Vance,    1246-1267. 
adaptability    of    New    York 

to,   1247. 
champagne    making,     1262- 

1265. 

classification  of  wines,  1261. 
extent  of,  1246,  1247,  1249. 
four  principal  districts, 

1249-  1251. 
kinds  of  wines  madfe,  1253- 

1255. 

needs  of,  1266,  1267. 
process     of     wine     making, 

1258-1261 
crushing  and  steamming 

grapes,  1258,  1259. 
fermentation,    1260. 
fining,    1261. 
gathering   grapes,    1258. 
pressing,  1259. 
varieties     of     grapes     used, 

1251-1253. 
vintage  in  New  York  State, 

1255-1257. 

presses,  types  of,  1259. 
Wines,   list   of,   made  in  New  York, 

1253,  1255. 

classification  of,  1261,  1262. 
Winter,  injury,  of  pear,  1040. 

pruning  following,  1092. 
Nelis  pear,  997,  1005. 
Wonderful  peach,   1065. 
Wood  cherry,  1133. 
Windsor  cherry,   1131. 
Worden,     grape,     characteristics    of, 

1237. 

sections  adapted  to,  1243. 
Seckel  pear,  998,   1005. 


Yellow,  Egg  plum,  1171. 

Spanish  cherry,  1133. 
Yellows,    disease    of    red    raspberry, 

1358. 

peach,  1111. 

Y-stem    Kniffen    system    of    priming 
grapevines,  1284. 


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